[The following, anonymously contributed, article was originally
an essay for the Australian College of Theology.—Ed.]

YOUNG CHARLES

Charles Taze Russell was born February 16 1852 of Presbyterian parents. He was educated in public schools and by private tutors. His parents taught him from the Catechism.

At 15 Charles left school and became a partner in his father’s
store in Alleghany. Pennsylvania. He prayed regularly but did not
attend church. One day Charles concluded he had reached the age
of “personal responsibility” in matters of faith. He prayed:

Oh, God, I will give Thee my heart… I need God and I need all
the blessings You have promised to Your people. Lord, let me be
one of Thy people. (1)

Charles joined the Congregational Church and the YMCA and became
active in local mission. Often he chalked hellfire slogans on walls.
This he discontinued at age 16 when a skeptic convinced him that
predestination together with eternal torment was irreconcilable
with notions of love and justice. Charles threw his Bible away but
continued “feeling after God, desiring to know the truth.” (2)

For a year Charles gave prime attention to business. He was a wizard
with numbers and did his father’s bookkeeping. Meanwhile he read
about Asiatic religions and attended occasional church meetings
which “left an empty void.”

One evening Charles chanced upon a meeting of Second Adventists
conducted by Jonas Wendel. Second Adventists were date-setting spin-offs
from the Millerite movement which crumbled in disarray when predictions
of Jesus’ second coming failed in 1844. Wendel believed the world
would be burned up in 1873. This rekindled Charles’ faith. He reasoned:

“All the creeds of Christendom claim to be founded on the Bible
and these are conflicting. Isn’t it possible that the Bible has
been misrepresented?” (3)

Charles next turned to George Storrs (l796-l879. Storrs, a Millerite
from 1842 and leader of the sect “The Life and Advent Union”, taught
Charles for 3 years, 1869-1872. Storrs had been a major originator
of Adventist doctrines. He considered the dead unconscious, identified
“Babylon” as Christendom, believed in future universal resurrection,
etc. (4) These beliefs passed to Charles, hence to Jehovah’s Witnesses:

“And here I should and do gratefully mention assistance by Brothers
Geo. Stetson and Geo. Storrs, the latter the editor of The Bible
Examiner, both now deceased. The study of the Word of God with
these dear brethren led, step by step, into greener pastures…”
(5)

Storrs predicted Christ’s second coming for 1870. Its failure motivated
Charles and 5 others to start a separate study class.

In Rochester, New York, N.H. Barbour, former gold-digger in Australia
turned prophet, predicted Christ’s coming for 1873, then 1874, finally
1875. When all failed he claimed that Christ had returned invisibly
in 1874. In 1876 Charles’ group, now numbering 30, amalgamated with
Barbour’s sect of 100 Second Adventists.

From Barbour Charles learnt about the “Gentile Times”. (6) 
In The Bible Examiner (October 1876) Charles predicted:

“The Gentile Times will end in A.D. 1914.”

By this he meant that Israel would be restored and ruled by resurrected
Hebrews to whom all nations would submit, giving world peace by
1914. Barbour also convinced Charles that the living Saints”, which
included themselves, would rise physically to heaven in 1878.

This expectation caused Charles to curtail business activities
and preach on soap boxes, outside churches, and in parks. He called
a meeting of all the Christian ministers of Alleghany and Pittsburgh
to convince them of Christ’s 1874 return and of the imminent miraculous
ascent. The result?

“All of the ministers of the two cities refused to believe. ”
(7)

This repudiation marked the start of Russellism’s, hence Jehovah’s
Witness, estrangement from conventional Christianity.

The haberdashery business of Charles and his father, which had
increased from one store to 5 valued at $300,000, now began to be
dissipated. Barbour, for example, required new printing equipment.

1878 arrived. One Pittsburgh newspaper reported that Charles, draped
in white robes, spent Passover night on Sixth Street Bridge. Charles
denied it, adding:

“However some of the more radical ones might have been there.”
(8)

Charles re-examined the Bible and concluded that the dead saints
were raised that night. The living saints would ascend in 1881.
This conclusion evidenced “the Lord’s continued leading.” (9) The
ploy of arguing that the date was right but the event expected wrong,
was to be used again and again through 15 prophetic failures. Barbour
rejected the “plain simple solution” (10) and after further disagreements
Charles withdrew.

In 1879 Charles started “Zion’s Watch Tower”. The high initial
circulation, 6,000, was possible because H.B. Rice, a Second Adventist
prophet of California, had to close down for lack of finance and
so donated his subscriber list to Charles. Charles’ sect was now
an independent entity
 
 

PASTOR RUSSELL

While getting Zion’s Watch Tower started Charles met and
married Maria F. Ackley. Next his followers, now about 150 in 30
autonomous household “ecciesias”, elected Charles “Paster”. He had
no official training in theology, no ordination, no laying on of
hands, not even a true prophecy. The title was therefore misappropriated.

Pastor Russell had a flair for organization an outflowmg personality,
an ability to hold audiences. There was no sound equipment then.
Yet when in later years he spoke in crowded auditoriums such as
Chicago’s Grand Opera, London’s Royal Albert Hall and New York’s
Hippodrome Theatre, he was clearly heard. Dignified in frock coat,
bowler hat and long grey beard, he would bow gracefully and speak
without notes, gesturing freely. Russell was 5′ 11′’ (180 cm) tall,
thinnish, professionally friendly, of saintly demeanour and posed
readily for photographs. Even when his sect stretched to 5 continents
he still found time for the small fry.

At first Russell solicited donations under the pretension that
the donators would neither die nor get sick “except by God’s will”.
(11) When some did die the offer needed amending. But miraculous
healings allegedly continued, including arthritics, deaf people,
and even old persons restored to youth. (12) This was discontinued
in the 1890s.

The miraculous ascent of 1881 failed and was unofficially put off
to 1883. Tract production and distribution in 1880, including hiring
of 300 New York boys to distribute tracts at church doors, cost
Russell $42,000. Such commitment meant no turning back. So, to reduce
costs Russell introduced tracteering as a Christian duty within
the sect. Being thus kept busy diverted their attention from failed
prophecy and instilled a sense of commitment in all. The “keep them
busy” stratagem is still successful a century later.

Russell commenced a set of books, “Studies in the Scriptures”.
Local clergymen opposed their sale in bookstores. Therefore Russell
introduced colporteuring in which selected followers earned incomes
by doorstep book selling. Russell demonstrated “God’s blessing”
further by legalizing the sect as a corporation—Watch Tower Bible
& Tract Society. Such legalization anticipated problems of control,
consolidation and perpetuation.

Russell’s gospel now had these elements (13):

1. The Time of the End was 1799-1914.
2. Jesus returned, 1874.
3. Europe would erupt in war, 1906-1908.
4. Armageddon, including Christendom’s end, 1910-1914.
5. Miraculous ascent, 1914.
6. World peace, rule by resurrected Patriarchs, 1914.

So much rubbish masquerading as “true light of God’s Word” (14)
provoked strife.

EXPANSION AND STRIFE

“Bible House”, a 4-story structure in Alleghany, became Russell’s
headquarters in 1889. Already he had followers overseas. To secure
his authority among them, Russell made his first overseas trip 1891
to Britain and the Mediterranean. Next he appointed “pilgrims” to
visit ecclesias, give sermons and enforce use of his books.

Russell’s early books were already dated. His failed prophecies,
ever changing “truth”, increasing power and stricter oversight sparked
“rebellion”. Several small groups split off in 1881. In 1894 four
leaders united in accusing Russell of sexual impropriety and of
“Pope-like” power. But Maria, Russell’s wife, came to the rescue
visiting the ecclesias, defending him. There were disturbances in
Ireland and Switzerland after 1900. In Melbourne the Branch Leader
took 80 of 100 converts with him in 1908. A major revolt in 1911
included the sect’s vice president and Russell’s private secretary.

The most serious confrontation was with Maria, leading to sensational
court battles, lurid accusations and legal separation. Rumours of
Russell philandering remained unsubstantiated. The confrontation
originated as a power struggle over doctrinal differences. Furthermore,
Maria was rejected as a woman. She and Russell lived: “celibate
lives for eighteen years”. (15)

These 18 years could mean 1879-97 from the marriage until Maria
left Bible House. Alternatively they could mean 1888-1906, from
the time an adopted daughter shared their apartment until the legal
separation. The former interpretation is favoured due to the added
claim that Russell: “had lived a life of absolute celibacy.” (16)
Allegedly Russell chose celibacy to aid his Godly devotion. Alternatively
“Brother” Bohnet’s words are suggestive if inconclusive:

“I had for many years been a member of the Bible House family,
had eaten and lived there, and even enjoyed your uncomfortable
bed-lounge with you on various occasions since the year 1895.”
(17)

As Russellism grew so grew Christian opposition. Some clerics burned
Russell’s books publicly. Flocks were warned against the “false
prophet”. Polemics via booklets and newspapers escalated. There
were public debates and libel trials. Russell survived all; and
as prophetic dates neared his sect catapulted into prominence.

GLOBAL PROMINENCE

In 1904 Russell changed “by 1914″ to “immediately after 1914″.
Hopes therefore began centering on 1915. When the Russo-Japanese
war began, 1904, Russell suggested it would suck in all Europe fulfilling
his prophecy for 1906. (18)

Russell travelled to Europe annually. From 1905 there were also
annual travelling conventions by hired train around the USA by Russell
and up to 240 followers. The 1913 trip covered 12,000km and attracted
40,000 people to conventions in 20 cities. Newspapers began publishing
Russell’s sermons. Russell had 600 colporteurs plus “an army of
tract distributors”. (19)  Overseas conventions also became
large—600 attended in Jamaica in1905, 4,500 in Britain 1908. Russell’s
world cruise in 1911-12 for the final fulfilment of Matthew 24:14
attracted large turnouts in many Asiatic countries. In India a small
town, Russellpuram, was named after him and 70 ecclesias inaugurated.
In Africa Joseph Booth, an Australian Baptist turned Russellite,
and convert Elliot Kamwana, baptized 9,100 natives in one year.
Russell’s books appeared in Zulu, Sixosa, plus 18 western languages.

As 1914 neared, Russell got cautious. He suggested that “immediately
after” might mean not 1915 but 5, 10 or even 25 years later!

In 1914 tract distributors numbered 5,100. Worship attendance approached
200,000. Russell ‘s sermons were published by 2,000 newspapers of
combined circulation 15 million. But the greatest publicity generator
was Russell’s “Photo Drama of Creation”—an 8 hour movie/slide marathon
with synchronized sound. The turnout from Europe to Australia was
tremendous—millions of viewers.

Then World War 1 erupted.

[A photocopy from The Watch Tower of June 1 1917 p. 163
is here omitted. The relevant passage calls Russell a “Prophet
of the Lord” :

“Truly there lived among us in these last days a Prophet of the
Lord; and although now he has passed from human sight, his works
remain an enduring witness to his wisdom and his faithfulness!”]

Table I  Number publicising their faith 1881            100 1893         2,000 1899         2,000 1914         5,100 1918         4,100 1985  3,000,000

Table 2  Watch Tower Circulation 1879        6,000 1890      10,000 1900      12,000 1910      30,000 1915      55,000 1916      47,000 1918      20,000 1985    11.1 million

 

Table 3  Newspapers printing Russell’s sermons, and circulation totals 1906           5          100,000 1908         11          400,000 1910       500       6,000,000 1912    1,200     14,000,000 1913    2,000     15,000,000 1914    1,000       5,500,000

Table 4  Pamphlets distributed 1870 – 1913   228 million 1914                 71      ” 1915                 55      ” 1916                 30      ” 1917                 31      ” 1984                900?    ”

Table 5  Books Distributed 1870-1913   6,100,000 1913               865,000 1914               993,000 1915               662,000 1916               453,000 1917               836,000 1918               359,000 1984          59,000,000

HOUSE UPON SAND

Russell interpreted the outbreak of World War as being the war
he had awaited in 1906, which would climax in Armageddon and world
rule by Israel. He felt it might take “ten months”. (20)

Decline set in. In America most colporteurs withdrew. In India
the Russellites flocked back to their previous churches. In Germany
380 Russellites joined the army in 1915 and colporteuring ceased.
In Africa the disappointment sparked a native uprising. In Belgium
attendences declined from 500 in 1912 to 5 in 1918.

But Russell pressed on, travelling and speaking. In his life he
travelled a million miles, wrote 50,000 pages, preached 30,000 sermons,
and dictated up to 1,000 letters monthly. He died from cystitis
aboard a Texas train, October 31, 1916.

Russell’s successor, Joseph Rutherford, staked every-thing on an
all out campaign of denunciation against “Christendom”, announcing
its destruction for 1918. Instead, he himself was imprisoned and
his “organization” ruined.

Russell had been: “a foolish man who built his house upon the sand.”
(Matthew 7:26)
 

EPILOGUE

Russell left certain legacies including 3 corporations, doctrines,
faulty chronology, a stance of political neutrality, an anti-Christendom
stance, use of law courts, centralized control, policies for meetings
:and conventions, pilgrims, and established patterns for publicising
the faith.

By 1932 Rutherford had moulded these legacies into a united global
preaching machine, dominated by himself. Prophecies of Christendom’s
destruction kept failing—1920, 1925, 1926, 1928. Rutherford therefore
determined to fulfil them himself. The method? The same way Christianity
overcame Paganism—by unity and testimony. Rutherford announced:
“God purposes to convert the world by preaching”. (21)  He
envisaged: “…vast billions coming out of all the kingdoms of the
world…” (22)

By 1971 the new leaders boasted of:  “…the largest thoroughly
unified activity on earth.” (23). And in 1984: “the mightiest preaching
activity ever…” (24)  And, still date-motivated it continues
in 200 countries and among 5,000 tribes.

What Russell started might yet become real-Christianity’s greatest
challenge.
 

REFERENCES

1. I.B.S.A. Convention Report 1912 pp. 308-309
2.Ibid P. 134
3. Watch Tower Reprints 1916 12/1 p. 5997
4. Froom, L. E. 1954 The Prophetic Faith of our Fathers Vol.
4 Review and Herald USA; Gaustad, E. S. (Ed.) 1978 The Rise of
Adventism Harper and Row USA
5. Watch Tower Reprints 1906 7/15 p. 3821
6. Jonsson, C. O. 1983 The Gentile Times Reconsidered English
Editor: Penton, M. J. Hart Publishers USA
7. Anonymous 1959 Jehovah’s witnesses In The Divine Purpose WBTS
USA p. 19
8. Macmillan, A.H. 1957 Faith on the March Prentice Hall
USA
9. Watch Tower Reprints 1906 7/1 p. 3823; Anonymous 1959
Jehovah’s Witnesses In The Divine Purpose WBTS USA p. 20

10. Ibid p.20
11. Watch Tower Reprints 1881 January p. 181
12. Watch Tower Reprints 1883 pp. 436-437; 1885 pp. 748749;
1885 pp. 782-784
13. Russell, C. T. Studies in the Scriptures Vol. 1 pp. 275-295;
Vol. 2 pp. 188-211, 234-235; Vol. 3 pp. 23, 59, 150-154, 234-240,
305-306, 362-364; Vol. 4 pp. 77-112
14. Anonymous 1959 Jehovah’s Witnesses In The Divine Purpose
WBTS USA p. 15
15. I.B.S.I. Convention Report 1913 p. 113; Peoples Pulpit
1914 October 1 p. 3
16. Peoples Pulpit 1918 January 1 p. 4
17. Watch Tower Reprints 1910 3/15 p. 4590
18. Watch Tower Reprints 1904 3/1 p. 3327
19. Watch Tower Reprints 1909 12/15 p. 4532
20. Watch Tower Reprints 1915 1/15 p. 5632; 1/1 p. 5601
21. Watch Tower 1929 10/15 p. 316
22. Schnell, W.J. 1980 30 Years A Watch-Tower Slave Baker
Book House USA p. 48
23. Awake! 1971 9/22 p. 3
24. The Watchtower 1984 2/1 p. 14