Jehovah’s Witnesses are members of an international religious denomination who identify themselves as Christian and number over six million. Their headquarters are in New York, USA. It is an international organization known for its extensive preaching and publishing activities, with The Watchtower and Awake! religious magazines and the "New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures" being the most prominent examples.

• 1 Origins
• 2 Membership
• 3 Organizational structure
• 4 Beliefs and doctrines
  • 4.1 The question of blood
• 5 Practices
• 6 Jehovah’s Witnesses and governments
• 7 Opposition to Jehovah’s Witnesses
• 8 Jehovah’s Witnesses and eschatology
  • 8.1 Early eschatology
  • 8.2 1975
  • 8.3 Recent changes
• 9 Jehovah’s Witnesses and their families

Origins

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that some time after the death of the last apostle, the Church gradually diverged, in a "Great Apostasy", from the original teachings of Jesus in several major points. Influenced by Restorationism, they believe their faith is a continually improving, imperfect restoration of First Century Christianity. An example in The Watchtower states: "It was the 1900-year-old ‘faithful and discreet slave,’ [parable–Matthew 24:45] the old Christian congregation, that was entrusted with this precious Kingdom service … obedient in its centuries-old commission to be witnesses in the earth … the matured ’slave’ as represented by a remnant now stood ready for new assignments of service."(Watchtower 1960) They teach that this new assignment occurred in 1919 in fulfillment of scripture. Jehovah’s Witnesses feel that true understanding of the scriptures began to be reassembled by Charles Taze Russell and his associates when they formed a Bible study group in the 1870s in Allegheny, Pennsylvania, and had until then been imperfectly represented since the Great Apostasy by a number of historical Christian groups.

From their beginnings, the "Bible Students" as they were known, focused their evangelizing work on proclaiming that Christ’s Second Presence had begun invisibly in 1874. As part of the dawning of the Millennium, Christ was believed to have been enthroned as King in 1878, and the destruction of religious organizations and governments was expected by the year 1914, to be followed by the establishment of a world-wide paradise. Though their interpretation of prophetic dates has changed through the years, eschatology has remained a major focus. To this day, based on their understanding of Bible chronology, they believe that 1914 marked the beginning of the "End Times", and that Armageddon is near, which drives the urgency in their preaching work.

Born into a Presbyterian family, Russell had nearly lost his faith until it was rekindled by contact with some Second Adventists (one of the spiritual heirs of the Millerites). Adventist ministers Jonas Wendell, George Storrs and George Stetson were early influences. In 1876 Russell met Nelson H. Barbour and subsequently adopted Barbour’s understanding of biblical chronology. Russell provided financial backing for Barbour and became co-editor of Barbour’s magazine Herald of the Morning. Breaking with Barbour in 1879 over the concept of substitutionary atonement, Russell soon began publishing his own magazine Zion’s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence. Known as "Pastor Russell", he formed a legal entity which developed into the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania in 1881, and in 1884 it was incorporated with Russell as president. Over several years, many millions of copies of Zion’s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence were distributed in several languages to proclaim Christ’s presence and the dawn of his Millennium. In addition, his six-volume work, originally entitled Millennial Dawn but later changed to Studies in the Scriptures, established the fundamental doctrines derived from their Bible study. (As a consequence, the Bible Students were sometimes called "Millennial Dawnists".) In 1914 Russell founded the International Bible Students Association in Great Britain.

Russell died in 1916, and in the following year, the movement was divided by schisms due to significant doctrinal changes. Those who rejected the changes in organization and doctrine became known as the Associated Bible Students, referring to themselves as simply "Bible Students" to this day. In 1918, a Bible Student convention was held independently of the Watchtower Society. At the second convention, a few months later, the Pastoral Bible Institute was founded and began publishing The Herald of Christ’s Kingdom. The magazine continues to be published today. By 1928 nearly 75% of Bible Students had fled from the changes in place by Pastor Russell´s successor.

In 1931, while Russell’s successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (often referred to as "Judge Rutherford"), was president of the Watch Tower Society, those who maintained their association with the Society adopted the name "Jehovah’s Witnesses", based on Isaiah 43:10 which reads, in part: "’You are my witnesses,’ is the utterance of Jehovah…" (New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures).

Under Rutherford, Jehovah’s Witnesses experienced rapid growth. Rutherford was known for bold rhetoric. In his preaching, he coined the phrase "Religion is a snare and a racket," heavily denouncing the Catholic Church and Christendom generally, modern Judaism and national governments. Under his leadership, the Society developed a legal staff (which is utilized to this day), and battled successfully in US and Canadian courts to establish their rights to preach their religion. These legal battles resulted in significant improvements in freedom of speech and religion in the laws of both countries. (See, e.g., Cantwell v. State of Connecticut, Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette.)

Nathan Homer Knorr became president of the Watch Tower Society after Rutherford’s death in 1942. Known as an efficient administrator, Knorr emphasized ministerial training in the local congregations and also founded the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead for training missionaries. Knorr’s Vice-President Frederick William Franz became the chief theologian for the Witnesses and was credited as being the principal translator of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. Witness membership rose from 115,000 to over 2 million under Knorr’s leadership.

The leadership of Jehovah’s Witnesses was reorganized in 1975 and the power of the presidency passed on to the Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Subsequent presidents of the Watch Tower Society after Knorr’s death in 1977 have been Frederick William Franz, Milton George Henschel and Don A. Adams. However, doctrinal and organizational decisions since 1975 have been made by the Governing Body.

Membership

As of August 2005, Jehovah’s Witnesses have a practicing membership of more than 6.6 million, according to data reported in the Annual Worldwide Statistics at the Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah’s Witnesses. The site states: "While other religious groups count their membership by occasional or annual attendance, this figure reflects only those who are actively involved in the public Bible educational work." Jehovah’s Witnesses have a custom of counting their membership by ‘Lands’ rather than by countries, indicating separate statistics for regions administered by other countries, such as Alaska, Hawaii, and Taiwan.

These statistics are based on the number of "active members". To be classed as an active member (or publisher), an individual who has first been approved as a publisher must serve at least one hour per month in the preaching work, or 15 minutes per month for elderly members and those otherwise physically restricted. Figures for time spent per month are reported by each publisher and submitted monthly to the Society. In 2004, these reports indicated a total of 1.3 billion hours.

In the United States, an academic study at CUNY based on a telephone survey (American Religious Identification Survey) was conducted in 2001 and estimated there to be 1.331 million adults in the U.S. who self-identify as Jehovah’s Witnesses (U.S. Census Bureau 2003). Jehovah’s Witnesses report over 1 million active publishers in the United States, but because this includes minors, it is not directly comparable to the ARIS numbers. In 1990, a larger but less detailed telephone survey based study (NSRI) at CUNY reported 1.38 million adults in the U.S. who self-identified as Jehovah’s Witnesses. While this might indicate a slow decline in U.S. identification with the group, there was an increase in active U.S. publishers over this period. ARIS notes the survey did not cover non-English speakers and small groups with a high proportion of recent immigrant members were likely undercounted. Announced U.S. Witness convention schedules for 2005 include 75 non-English conventions of 227 total. Most increase in membership each year is due to an influx of non-English speaking individuals, with a rapid increase in foreign-language congregations being established throughout the country.

Jehovah’s Witnesses have a small active presence in most countries and are the second or third largest religious group in many countries with a dominant religion. In no country are they a large part of the population, however. Brazil and Mexico are the only countries other than the U.S. where the number of active Witness publishers exceeds 0.5 million. The highest proportion of Witnesses in a country of substantial size is in Zambia, where 1% are active Witness publishers. Growth in most developed countries is slow or negative in recent years but is offset by rapid growth in less developed lands, particularly the former Communist bloc and Latin America.

Jehovah’s Witnesses commemorate the Memorial of Christ’s death (also known as the Lord’s Evening Meal) annually. According to the February 1, 2006 Watchtower, worldwide attendance at the 2005 celebration of the Memorial was 16,383,333, slightly lower than the 2004 attendance of 16,760,607. This figure includes not only publishers, but inactive members, relatives, visitors and interested persons. In the U.S., 2.3 million people were present. In Zambia 570,000 attended, or 1 person for every 22 in the population. Of over 16 million in attendance worldwide, only 8,524 persons partook of the memorial emblems of unleavened bread and wine. These are those who profess to be anointed ones based on their interpretation of Revelation 14:1. (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society 2004a)

Organizational structure

Jehovah’s Witnesses are currently led by a small, ecclesiastical Governing Body. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe the role of the Governing Body corresponds to that of those who met in the Council of Jerusalem, guided by Holy Spirit and directed by Jesus. The description of the Council of Jerusalem in the Acts of the Apostles is often used as an example of how God had a "visible organization" in the first century. From this they reason that God therefore has an organization today. This top-down leadership is referred to by the Witnesses as "theocratic".

All members of the Governing Body profess to be "anointed". The number of men who make up the Governing Body has ranged from ten to seventeen. Since April 1975, the Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses makes decisions by a two-thirds majority vote; previously a unanimous vote was required. Therefore, no one member makes decisions nor asserts any more spiritual insight than any other member of the Governing Body. (Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pp. 45, 85, 163) The Governing Body (indirectly through the departments of its various legal organizations) directs the operation of the 111 branches spread throughout the world (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society 2005). Each branch has appointed overseers who travel among various local congregations, spending a week with each and giving spiritual encouragement through talks and one-on-one time spent with members in their public ministry. Within each local congregation, appointed elders organize the congregation’s public ministry, and the content and schedule of their five weekly meetings, based on publications and precedents set by the Governing Body. They also recommend, via a vote of the elder body, "spiritually mature" baptized male members of the congregation for the positions of elder or ministerial servant, requiring the approval of higher leadership.

Elders take the lead in congregational matters, particularly in religious instruction and spiritual counseling, whereas the ministerial servants assist elders in a limited administrative capacity, and they and other Witnesses ‘in good standing’ often perform the majority of operational tasks for congregation meetings.

Witnesses do not consider elders to be clergy, though their service includes pastoral activity that clergy provide in other Christian denominations. All baptized Witnesses are considered to be ordained ministers, and are obligated to provide religious instruction to others. Spiritually mature Witnesses (men and women alike) are exhorted to the counseling of less-mature Witnesses. They may be assigned a newer publisher to assist in ministry, and may be asked to conduct a personal Bible study with another Witness who is spiritually troubled or "weak". Males are encouraged to reach out for ‘privileges of service’ such as becoming elders. Elders are said to be worthy of "double honor", but are held to a higher standard as overseers than other baptized "publishers", and are subject to additional discipline including removal. An elder may also be removed, or choose to step down willingly, from his position if members of his household are not in "good standing".

About 8,500 other Jehovah’s Witnesses profess to be anointed but they have no formal role in establishment or modification of the doctrines of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Unless appointed into one of the various roles described above, they have no position of leadership or authority. Women who profess to be anointed cannot attain any position of earthly authority; Witnesses do believe that all anointed, including many women, will be resurrected to heaven to serve as ‘kings and priests’ over other creatures provided they die faithful. They believe that the resurrection of the anointed began in the Spring of 1918 and each member of the anointed who dies since then is resurrected to spirit life in the heavens immediately upon their death.

Beliefs and doctrines

Jehovah’s Witnesses claim reliance on the Bible for their theology, and the scriptures noted below are commonly used by Witnesses and their organization as the basis for their claims of a biblical foundation for their doctrines. Many beliefs and practices are similar to mainstream Christian denominations, yet there are significant differences as well.

Beliefs and practices that can be said to be distinctive of Jehovah’s Witnesses include:

• Prominent use of the biblical name of God as translated into native languages, for example: Jehovah in English, Geova in Italian, etc. (based on Psalm 83:18)
• Jesus is a created being and God’s first creation, not the uncreated second person of the Trinity; Jesus was used by God to create every other creation (based on Colossians 1:15; Proverbs 8:30; Revelation 3:14)
• Jesus was known as the Archangel Michael in his pre-human existence; his birth on earth was accomplished when God transferred Michael’s life force from heaven to the womb of the virgin Mary (based on Daniel 12:1; John 1:14, 18, 34)
• The Holy Spirit is God’s ‘active force’, not the uncreated third person of the Trinity (based on Acts 2:1-4)
• Preaching from "house to house" (based on Acts 5:42; 20:20, 21)
• Only Jehovah’s Witnesses can correctly be called true Christians (Watchtower December 1, 1992 pp. 16-17 paragraphs 18-22; The Road to Everlasting Life—Have You Found It? Part 7 "Who Practice the True Religion?")
• Deceased redeemable individuals are "asleep in death" awaiting the "resurrection of both the righteous and the unrighteous" (based on Acts 24:15)
• The number of Christians going to heaven is limited to precisely 144,000 where they will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over Earth (based on Revelation 7:4-8; 14:1-4; 20:6)
• Jesus is mediator for those in the ‘new covenant’ (the 144,000) (based on Hebrews 8:6); no one comes to the Father except though Jesus. (based on John 14:6)
• Teaching authority is only possessed by a ‘Governing Body’ (currently comprised of 12 men) who have the equivalent of magisterium regarding interpretation of the Bible, also referred to as the Faithful and Discreet Slave (based on Acts 2:41, 42; 15:1-31; 16:4, 5)
• The Greek Scriptures are directed primarily to the 144,000, (though the principles apply to all members) (United In Worship of the Only True God; 1983, p. 111)
• The Temple of Jerusalem was destroyed in 607 BC, rather than the historically accepted date of 587/586 BC, based on the belief that 70 years transpired from destruction of Jerusalem to return of captives from Babylon (based on Jer. 29:10, Dan. 9:2)
• The "seven times" of Daniel 4:10-17 are interpreted as a 2,520 year period from 607 BC to 1914 AD, referred to as the "Gentile Times" (based on Luke 21:24)
• Jesus’ invisible enthronement as King of Heaven in 1914 was followed by an inspection period of all Christian Churches, and Jehovah’s Witnesses were chosen by Jesus in 1919 as the only true Christian organization (based on Revelation 18:2-5; Watchtower May 1, 1993 p. 16, 17 paragraphs 4-8)
• In 1918 Jesus resurrected those of the 144,000 (the "anointed") who had already died to heavenly life; since 1918, any "anointed" are individually resurrected to heavenly life at the time of their death (based on Revelation 6:11, 14:13; Revelation–It’s Grand Climax At Hand!, page 102)
• A "Great Crowd" of Jehovah’s Witnesses is now living that will survive the coming battle of Armageddon and have the prospect of living forever in an earthly paradise (based on Revelation 7:9-17)
• Celebration of the Lord’s Supper is held once a year after sundown on the date corresponding to Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar; only those claiming to be of the "remnant" of the 144,000 with the heavenly hope partake of the unleavened bread and wine (those with the earthly hope attend but do not partake)"The only flesh saved" at Armageddon will be faithful Jehovah’s Witnesses—these being just the "anointed" and the "great crowd", according to the vast majority of the Governing Body’s approved publications through the Watch Tower Society. (Watchtower magazines 15 November 1983, p.24; 15 June 1999, p.6; Live Forever book, p.255) A few other Witness publications do not comment either way about individuals at Armageddon who are uninformed of Jehovah’s Witnesses’ message. These publications leave the fate of these people in "God’s hands"; whether or not they might be spared destruction is left inconclusive in those publications. (Watchtower magazines 1976, pp.347–8; 15 August 1998, p.20; Reasoning book, p.48
• An unknown number of dead people will be resurrected after Armageddon, with the prospect of living forever in an earthly paradise, but those who have already been judged by God will not (such as any killed at Armageddon) (based on John 5:28,29; John 11:25; Acts 24:15)
• After Armageddon, Christ will rule for a thousand years, during which the Earth will be transformed into a paradise, while Satan is abyssed and unable to influence mankind (Revelation 20:1-3); at the end of this time, Satan will be released, and the final judgment will take place during which Satan and all those corrupted by him will be destroyed forever, and evil will never again occur (based on Revelation 20:7-10; Revelation 21:1-4)
• Jesus was executed on a single beamed torture stake, not on a two beamed cross (based on Acts 5:30 and interpretation of the Greek word stauros)
• "Abstaining from blood", most notably characterized by the refusal of whole blood transfusions or any of the primary components of blood (plasma, platelets, white blood cells, and red blood cells) (based on Acts 15:20, 29; Genesis 9:4); taking of any derivatives of blood is left to the conscience (no supporting biblical text); belief that the only proper use of blood can be decided by God only; that sacred use pertained to the washing of sins by Christ’s blood as he died on earth
• God has a visible organization, and it represents the only one true religion (based on Matthew 7:13, 14; Ephesians 4:4-6)
• Neutrality in secular politics and refusal to take part in elections (based on Matthew 26:52; John 17:16)
• Not celebrating common religious or national holidays such as Thanksgiving and Christmas (based on Galatians 4:8-11)
• Not celebrating birthdays (based on Genesis 40:20-22; Mark 6:19-27)
• The annihilation of the unsaved (cessation of existence) as opposed to damnation of the unsaved (eternal existence in hell) (based on John 3:16, 36)
• The current time is the "Last Days" or "End Times" soon to end (based on Isaiah 2:2-4; 2 Timothy 3:1-5, 13)
• Prayer to the Father Jehovah only but in the name of the Son, recognizing Jehovah God as the most high, and that Jesus gave his life for all (based on Matthew 6:9; John 14:6, 13)
• All members are expected to abide by the doctrines and unique organizational requirements as determined by the Governing Body. (based on Watchtower 1 April 1986 pp.30-31) Unapologetic and/or continuous breaking of these organizational rules can result in disfellowshipping (being excommunicated) and shunning.
• Baptized Jehovah’s Witnesses who unapologetically disagree with organizational doctrine are labeled apostate and disfellowshipped (based on letter from Watchtower Societydated 1 Sept. 1980)
• All Jehovah’s Witnesses are expected to shun individuals who are either disfellowshipped, or disassociated (those who leave voluntarily) (based on 1 Corinthians 5:11-13)

Beliefs similar to those of most Christians include:

• Worship of the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (based on Matthew 4:10)
• The Hebrew Scriptures tell the history of the people of Israel as the beneficiaries of God’s covenant and recipients of His Law, and prophesy the coming of Jesus Christ (based on Romans 3:2; 9:1-6)
• Jesus died to atone for the sins of humankind (based on Matthew 20:28)
• Salvation is by faith and undeserved kindness (grace) of God which compels the Christian to works; works are evidence of faith and cannot gain salvation (based on John 3:16, 36; James 2:14-26; Matthew 7:15-23; Ephesians 2:8-10)
• All are sinners (based on Romans 3:23)

Beliefs similar to those of many Christians include:

• Abortion is murder (based on Exodus 21:22, 23; Psalm 127:3)
• Premarital sexual relations are sinful (based on 1 Corinthians 6:9-11,18)
• Homosexual acts are sinful (based on Leviticus 18:22; Romans 1:26,27; 1 Corinthians 6:9)
• Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that their religion is the only true one Reasoning from the Scriptures p. 203)
• Rejection of evolution (based on Genesis 1:11, 12)
• Women cannot be "teachers" in the congregation (based on 1 Timothy 2:12, 13); though female Witnesses do participate in meeting programs they do not serve in a "teaching" role or one of oversight

Beliefs similar to those of most conservative Christians include:

• inerrancy of the Bible, with a literal interpretation of the Bible, although believing that Bible writers and characters employed symbology, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism (based on John 17:17; 2 Timothy 3:16, 17)
• Wives should be submissive to their husbands; husbands are to have deep respect and love for their wives; the husband is the head of the family (based on 1 Corinthians 11:3)

Beliefs similar to those of some other Christians include:

• Belief that the soul is mortal, and that death is a state of non-existence (based on Ezekiel 18:4)
• Hades or Sheol is not a place of fiery torment, but rather the common grave of mankind, in which they are "conscious of nothing" (based on Revelation 20:13,14, Ecclesiastes 9:5,10)
• Refusal of military service (based on Isaiah 2:2-4; Matthew 26:52; cf. the Peace churches and Quakers)

Beliefs similar to main Protestant teachings include:

• Rejection of transubstantiation and consubstantiation (of the Eucharist) (based on John 6:35, 40; 53, 63; 15:1; 1 Corinthians 11:25)
• Rejection of veneration of Mary, the saints, or the cross; such is viewed as idolatry and detracting from the worship of God
• Mary was not ever-virgin, but rather bore more children after Jesus (based on Matthew 13:56 and Mark 6:3-4)

Jehovah’s Witnesses and Philosophy Jehovah’s Witnesses have had several views of philosophy. The authors of the book Reasoning from the Scriptures state that "they do not resort to philosophical arguments to evade [the bible’s] clear statements of truth." (Reasoning from the Scriptures p. 204). Yet, in the book Is There a Creator Who Cares about You? the authors explicate several well known philosophical proofs for the existence of God. (See Is There a Creator Who Cares about You? pp. 17, 25, 78). The authors use the Fine-Tuning argument, the Teleological argument, and the Kalam Cosmological argument to support belief in God.

The question of blood

Jehovah’s Witnesses reject whole allogeneic blood transfusions.(Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society 2004b) This is based on their understanding of the biblical admonition to "keep abstaining from blood" (based on Acts 15:28, 29). Prior to 2000, the storage and use of human and animal blood products, and the commercial use of blood products were condemned as unscriptural. (Watchtower 1 February 1997 p.30)

Although Jehovah’s Witnesses do not accept transfusions of whole blood, and despite not donating blood (as they believe it must not be stored), they may according to the conscience of the particular individual, accept derivatives of blood, or even whole autologous blood so long as it is part of a "current therapy", such as normovolemic hemodilution, a treatment that processes the individual’s own blood in a closed loop that does not interrupt the flow of blood, delivering it immediately back into the person’s body. Also left to conscience are procedures where a "quantity of blood is withdrawn in order to tag it or to mix it with medicine, whereupon it is put back into the patient." (15 October 2000 Watchtower, p. 31)

The Witnesses’ Medical Care and Blood policy changed fundamentally in the year 2000 and now accepts derivatives such as Hemopure, which consists of chemically stabilized bovine hemoglobin (derived from cows’ blood) and PolyHeme (chemically modified hemoglobin derived from human blood). The Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia, PA, provides a detailed list of these specific distinctions. Witnesses interpret the prohibited use of blood to be limited to whole allogeneic blood (or any of its four main components), or stored autologous blood. Transfusion of whole autologous blood that is part of a "current therapy" and/or sufficiently fractionated constituents from donated and stored allogeneic blood are considered a "gray area" not specifically condemned and therefore permissable. (15 June 2000 Watchtower, pp. 29-31)

Many Jehovah’s Witnesses carry carefully prepared durable power of attorney documents indicating that they will accept all fractions derived from blood. The wording of this option reads, "I accept all fractions derived from any primary component of blood." (2003 Guide to Our Three Health Care Documents, p. 11) The conscience of some Witnesses still does not permit the use of fractions derived from blood and these will use non-blood alternatives with varying degrees of success.

The refusal of blood transfusions is a significant issue among medical professionals and others concerning Jehovah’s Witnesses, especially when it involves minor children and more so in view of the fact that children of Jehovah’s Witnesses have died as a consequence. In some countries, laws may impose limitations on physicians on the ability to withhold or withdraw blood transfusions or blood therapy from minors, particularly in life-threatening situations; parents who have prevented children under their care from receiving blood therapy in life-threatening situations may face prosecution. Courts have ordered transfusions for some children, often the very young; in other cases they have respected the declared choice of an under-age minor who is able to defend his or her own beliefs to the court in a manner that reflects a mature understanding and without undue influence from the parents.

Pursuit of medical alternatives to blood transfusion in cases involving Jehovah’s Witness patients, including the use of erythropoietin to boost the red blood cell count, has afforded opportunities for medical advancement in the field of bloodless surgery.(Awake! 1996)

A peer-reviewed essay entitled, "Jehovah’s Witnesses, Blood Transfusions, and the Tort of Misrepresentation," found in the Autumn issue of Baylor University’s Journal of Church and State, published December 13, 2005, discusses the potential vulnerability of Jehovah’s Witnesses’ legal corporations to significant claims for compensation because of the religion’s possible misrepresentation of the medical risks of blood transfusions.

Practices

Jehovah’s Witnesses have five meetings per week, which are made up of five program parts (totaling approximately five hours). Meetings are held in local Kingdom Halls and private homes. Larger conventions are held usually three times a year in facilities owned or maintained by the Watchtower Society or rented, such as stadiums or auditoriums. Throughout the week, there are also meetings for "field service" (preaching work) where members meet either in homes, or the Kingdom Hall, to organize and pray prior to engaging in door-to-door or other forms of evangelism. On a daily basis, Jehovah’s Witnesses are encouraged to meditate on spiritual matters, often by aids such as Examining the Scriptures Daily, a booklet with a scripture from the Bible and commentary usually based on a Watchtower article. Before meals, Jehovah’s Witnesses commonly say a prayer, either silently when alone or aloud when at a gathering.

Aside from their worship practices, Jehovah’s Witnesses are identifiable by things from which they abstain. There is a general avoidance of practices considered to have nationalistic or "false religious" roots. These can be such things as singing the national anthem at sporting events, or not saying "bless you" when someone sneezes. They avoid celebrations of birthdays and holidays. Their only officially mandated celebration is the "Memorial of Christ’s Death." Weddings, anniversaries, and memorials at death are also optionally observed. Adhering to these standards of behavior, Jehovah’s Witnesses believe themselves to be faithful even in the seemingly small things (see Luke 16:10). The use of distinctive titles in address (such as Father, Pastor, Elder, Reverend, etc. among other groups) is strictly avoided (Matthew 23:6-12). All Witnesses, irrespective of privileges of service, address one another as "Brother" or "Sister", often followed by the first or last name of the individual. There are categories of privileges of service (Pioneer, Elder, Presiding Overseer, and so on) which may be used to refer to an individual in reference to those duties ("John is an elder"), but never as a title or to address him or her ("elder John").

Their view of sexual behavior reflects conservative Christian views, such as pre-marital sex and homosexual acts as being violations of God’s law. "Modesty" is heavily encouraged in daily dress, especially at spiritual events, where standards of dress are more formal, varying by country and regional custom (In the U.S., Europe, and most of Asia, this typically consists of formal western business attire). In addition, entertainment with sexual, materialistic, spiritualistic or violent subject matter is strongly discouraged. Further, though they are nonconformists in some ways, they seek not to appear to be "counter-cultural." They avoid presenting an image that might appear unkempt or unprofessional according to local culture and societal norms. Therefore, in certain areas, styles or attributes such as beards, long hair or earrings for men, or any dress or grooming for both men and women that is defined by them to appear "rebellious" or "immodest" are seriously discouraged, even outside of spiritual activities. A person violating these standards would risk providing a "bad witness," and would fail to mark him or herself as different from the secular and "false religious" world. This is in keeping with their interpretation of the scriptural admonition at 2 Timothy 2:9,10 (NWT), "Likewise I desire the women to adorn themselves in well-arranged dress, with modesty and soundness of mind, not with styles of hair braiding and gold or pearls or very expensive garb, but in the way that befits women professing to reverence God, namely, through good works." Jehovah’s Witnesses consider this admonition to apply, in principle, equally to men and to women.

Jehovah’s Witnesses are known in many lands for their building work. International and regional building teams frequently undertake so-called "quick builds," construction of Kingdom Halls over the course of one or two weekends. Larger construction projects, including the building of regional Assembly Halls and Bethel offices, factories, residences, warehouses, and farm facilities, are also carried out almost entirely by volunteer members.

The Witnesses are noted for their racial and ethnic integration. In the United States an academic study (ARIS 2001) by CUNY put the proportion of blacks among adults who self-identified as Witnesses at 37% (the highest proportion among any of the 22 largest religious identifications which make up 90% of the U.S. population). Congregations are generally organized geographically, and members are encouraged to attend the Kingdom Hall in whose territory they reside, resulting in an ethnic mix generally representative of local population. Anecdotal accounts of Witness outreach across racial lines are a common subject matter for the annual Yearbook of Jehovah’s Witnesses. A notable example is the account of relief efforts to both Hutu and Tutsi Witnesses and non-Witnesses during the genocide in Rwanda and to Congo refugees. "Since 1994, Jehovah’s Witnesses in Europe alone have sent more than 190 tons of food, clothing, medicine, and other relief supplies to the Great Lakes region of Africa." This humanitarian aid was not given exclusively to Jehovah’s Witnesses. Others also benefited. For instance, the Witnesses distributed medicine and clothing to several primary schools and an orphanage near Goma.(Watchtower 1998a)

Jehovah’s Witnesses and governments

Jehovah’s Witnesses exhort their members to obey all the laws, including the paying of taxes, of the country in which they reside, so long as these do not violate ‘God’s law’. This is in keeping with their interpretation of Romans 13:7:

Render to all their dues, to him who calls for the tax, the tax; to him who calls for the tribute, the tribute; to him who calls for fear, such fear; to him who calls for honor, such honor.

At the same time, however, they hold a stance of political neutrality. Examples of this detachment in practice include:

• Refusal to salute the flag, or sing nationalistic songs
• Refusal to serve in the military (including defense, or non-combatant roles)
• Refusal to participate in political processes including democratic ones: voting in government elections, while termed a ‘conscience decision’ for legal reasons, constitutes an act of disassociation, as does military service. (Watchtower 1 November 1999 pp.28-9)
• Refusal to hold political office

One area in which Jehovah’s Witnesses have influenced public policy is civil rights. The Watch Tower Society from the days of Joseph Franklin Rutherford has utilized the court systems of various countries to defend religious freedoms. In addition, they have occasionally organized letter-writing campaigns to protest "persecutions", most famously those addressed to Adolf Hitler during the second world war and certain African nations during the 1970s. (See the publication Defending and Legally Establishing the Good News for examples.)

According to the book Judging Jehovah’s Witnesses (Shawn Francis Peters, University Press of Kansas: 2000), the Witnesses have helped to widen the definition of civil liberties in most western societies, hence broadening the rights of millions of people, due to their firm stand and determination. According to the preface to the book State and Salvation (William Kaplan, University of Toronto Press: 1989): "One of the results of the Witnesses’ legal battles was the long process of discussion and debate that led to the Charter of Rights, which is now part of the fundamental law of Canada. Other battles in countries around the world have involved the rights to decline military service or martial arts training, to decline to participate in political parties or governmental elections, to exercise free and anonymous speech, to exercise freedom of association, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, medical self-determination, etc. Witnesses continue to, in their words, ‘defend and legally establish the Good News’ around the world."

Jehovah’s Witnesses endured intense persecution under the Nazi regime from 1933 to 1945, both as a religious group and individually. Unlike Jews, Sinti and Roma ("Gypsies"), persecuted and killed by virtue of their culture, Jehovah’s Witnesses had the opportunity to escape persecution and personal harm by renouncing their religious beliefs. The courage the vast majority displayed in refusing to do so, in the face of torture, maltreatment in concentration camps, and sometimes execution, won them the respect of many contemporaries. These events are recounted in a documentary (available through the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society) called: PURPLE TRIANGLES. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

Regarding the intensity and argumentation used by Jehovah’s Witnesses as an organization in defending their claimed basic "legal rights, Human Rights, and Freedoms of Speech" within the nations in which they have a presence, some criticism has been expressed regarding the internal organizational practices and their effects on the same Human Rights and basic freedoms of individual members. Citing a Witness publication, the contention is that divergent views expressed, or even just thoughts rejecting non-scholarly organizational doctrines by baptized members, will result in disfellowshipping (excommunication), or strong threats thereof on the grounds of "apostasy" with accompanying removal of congregational privileges, communication with family and friends, and respected name and reputation: "Persons who deliberately spread (stubbornly hold to and speak about) teachings contrary to Bible truth as taught by Jehovah’s Witnesses are apostates." (Pay Attention to Yourselves and to All the Flock p. 94 Apostasy). Also, "Keep in mind that to be disfellowshipped, an apostate does not have to be a promoter of apostate views. . . Therefore, if a baptized Christian abandons the teachings of Jehovah, as presented by the faithful and discreet slave [Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses], and persists in believing other doctrines, . . .then he is apostatizing. . . if he continues to believe the apostate ideas and rejects what has been provided through the ’slave class’ [Governing Body] then appropriate judicial action should be taken."—letter to all Circuit and District overseers, 1 September 1980. This is seen by some critics as a major restriction of the basic humans rights and freedoms of speech and thought of the members — rights which the organization demands in its legal battles with some governments of the world — as well as indicative of a severe mind- and speech-controlling policy directly contradicting scriptural precedents. They criticize the organization’s pursuit of its rights before governments as hypocritical because they see the organization violating those same rights when dealing with members. The organization sees this as a perfectly reasonable private internal matter by itself and its followers, and states its right to excommunicate members.

Opposition to Jehovah’s Witnesses

Throughout their history, their beliefs, doctrines and practices have met controversy and opposition from governments, communities, and religious groups. Many Christian denominations consider the interpretation and doctrines of Jehovah’s Witnesses to be heresy. In addition, governments of various political persuasions have considered the religion to be a subversive organization, and sometimes even a threat to national security.

Political and religious animosity against them has at times led to mob action and government oppression.

On the milder side, there have been opposition by locals to the building of facilities (such as Kingdom Halls), and the holding of large conventions. In those circumstances, at times the reason is opposition to the religion, but at other times, they are more mundane, such as concerns about traffic congestion and noise. In some legal cases, (such as Congrégation des témoins de Jéhovah de St-Jérôme-Lafontaine v. Lafontaine (Village)), disputes that have actually been about appropriate land use have been claimed by the Witnesses to be a violation of their religious freedoms.

Jehovah’s Witnesses and eschatology

Since their formation in the 1870s, leaders of the organization have sought to identify dates for end-time events such as the enthronement of Jesus as King, the return of Jesus Christ, and for the "end of this system of things," culminating in Armageddon. The Witness publication Jehovah’s Witnesses–Proclaimers of God’s Kingdom, gives an overview of some of the historical development of the Witnesses’ eschatology. However, no detailed study by Witness historians has been published. Most information on Jehovah’s Witnesses’ eschatology has been produced by non-Witnesses citing Watch Tower publications. Responding to the charge of being "false prophets," the Watchtower Society has defended failed predictions, and eschatology changes, as incorrect interpretations of the Bible and views it as evidence that they have been "keeping on the watch" for the "Day of Jehovah." The Witnesses still rely on their understanding of Bible chronology for establishing the year of Christ’s return. While they look to modern events as corresponding to Biblical prophecies and feel Armageddon is imminent, they no longer predict a specific year for it.

Early eschatology

The Second Adventists affiliated with Nelson H. Barbour expected a visible and dramatic return of Christ in 1873, and later in 1874. They agreed with other Adventist groups that the "time of the end" (also called the "last days") had started in 1799. Soon after the 1874 disappointment, Barbour accepted the idea that Christ had actually returned to the earth in 1874, but invisibly. 1874 was considered the end of 6,000 years of human history and the beginning of judgment by Christ. Charles Taze Russell and the group that later was known as Bible Students accepted these views from Barbour. Russell taught that while Jesus was invisibly present here on earth, he was made its King in 1878. Russell also taught that in 1878 Christ resurrected all the "dead in Christ" as spirit beings to be with him here on the earth awaiting a future glorification. (As each of the remainder of the 144,000 would die after 1878, Christ would resurrect them as spirit beings to join those already resurrected.) Together with Christ here on earth, these invisible resurrected spirit beings were engaged in directing a harvest work gathering the remainder of those with the heavenly calling. This harvest would run from 1874–1914, and the culmination of Armageddon would occur in 1914 preceded by the gathering of all the saints (both resurrected and living) to heaven notes C1. From 1925–1933, the Watchtower Society radically changed their beliefs after the failure of expectations for Armageddon in 1914, 1915, 1918, 1920, and 1925. In 1925, the Watchtower explained a major change that Christ had now been enthroned as King in heaven in the year 1914 instead of 1878. 1874 was retained as the time of Christ’s invisible return until the early 1930s. But, Christ’s Second Advent was now explained not as a return to the earth but as a "turning of attention" to the earth with Christ remaining in heaven. By 1933, it was clearly taught that Christ had returned invisibly in 1914 and the "last days" had also begun then. The 1878 resurrection date was transferred to 1918 but it was now held these were raised as spirit creatures to heavenly life to be with Christ there. These are the current teachings of Jehovah’s Witnesses regarding 1914 and 1918. Witnesses no longer consider the dates 1799, 1874 and 1878 of any significance today, even though they were foundation doctrines in their time. The idea that the "great tribulation" had begun in 1914 and was "cut short" in 1918 to be resumed at Armageddon was dropped in 1969, though Armageddon is still considered to be "very close".

Other dates proclaimed to be time of God’s judgment on humankind and the culmination of Armageddon, were 1915, 1918, 1920, 1925 and 1941. The return of Old Testament men including Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob was an event anticipated by many Jehovah’s Witnesses in 1925 based on writings in their journal, The Watchtower, the book Millions Now Living Will Never Die C2, and various other Watch Tower Society publications. In 1929, Joseph Rutherford (the second president of the Watch Tower) built a luxury villa in California called Beth Sarim for the purpose of housing ancient Biblical persons, who were expected to be physically resurrected on earth to join Christ’s reign over the earth, even though they had failed to materialize as he had predicted for 1925. Rutherford lived in the villa until his death in 1942, and in 1948 the villa was sold. notes C3

Throughout its history the Watch Tower Society’s claims authority as "God’s Prophet", and "God’s one and only true channel to mankind" has been historically reinforced into the minds of Jehovah’s Witnesses throughout the history of the organization. Its dates for Armageddon were repeatedly classed as "of God,", "God’s time to act against mankind", "God’s interpretations," and the organization describes itself in a unique and privileged position of "God’s one sole channel to Mankind" in giving these dates. To questions the dates validity is often negatively inferred to be questioning God Himself. The organization has at times denied being "directly inspired", but has also made multiple claims equaling inspiration in their import. These historical dates were never suggested to be the thoughts of imperfect men, or passing theories of men at the time of their publishing. This is demonstrated clearly in two out of many issues of the Watchtower magazine published by Jehovah’s Witnesses: "It is on the basis of such and so many correspondences-in accordance with the soundest laws known to science that we affirm that, Scripturally, scientifically, and historically, present-truth chronology is correct beyond a doubt. Its reliability has been abundantly confirmed by the dates and events of 1874, 1914, and 1918. Present-truth chronology is a secure basis on which the consecrated child of God may endeavor to search out things to come." (Watchtower, 15 June 1922, p. 187.) "This chronology is not of man, but of God. Being of divine origin and divinely corroborated, present-truth chronology stands in a class by itself, absolutely and unqualifiedly correct."—Watchtower, 15 July 1922, p. 217.

1975

During the 1960s and early 1970s, many Witnesses were stimulated by articles in their literature C4 and further encouraged by speakers at their assemblies prior to 1975, to believe that Armageddon and Christ’s thousand-year millennial reign would begin by 1975. Although the views of Armageddon and Christ’s millennium beginning in 1975 were never fully or explicitly supported by the Watch Tower Society, many in the organizations’ writing department, as well as several leading Witnesses, Elders, and presiding overseers in the organization, heavily suggested that Christ’s millennial reign over earth would begin by 1975. One outstanding example is an audio of a lecture by then Vice-President Fred Franz in early 1975 pin-pointing after sundown on September 5, 1975 as the end of 6,000 years and saying all the prophecies "could happen" by then, while admitting that looked improbable. While Witnesses have always been encouraged to increase the preaching work, and avoid secular life goals or careers, this emphasis was especially strong prior to 1975.

Some Witnesses gave up good jobs, notes C5 college, scholarships, and some imprudently sold their houses in the hopeful expectation that God’s Kingdom would literally be established on earth in 1975 after the biblical Armageddon, encouraged by the Watch Tower Society: "Reports are heard of brothers selling their homes and property and planning to finish out the rest of their days in this old system in the pioneer service. Certainly this is a fine way to spend the short time remaining before the wicked world’s end.-1 John 2:17." notes C6 It is worth noting that similar language persists in publications of Jehovah’s Witnesses, who still hold that the time remaining in the present system is relatively short, and that having an active share in the preaching work is the best use of a believer’s time. Some Jehovah’s Witnesses irresponsibly ran up debt believing they would not to have to pay it back, and some unwisely spent their life savings believing that the 1975 date was a certain and unchangeable fact due to the many encouraging Watch Tower articles. C7 In spite of the Watch Tower Society’s previous admonition that Witnesses should let nothing cause them to tire and give out (Watchtower, 15 August 1968, p. 501), there were many who left the organization (or became inactive) due to the disappointment of Armageddon not coming in 1975, although the majority remained. The large numbers leaving or becoming inactive were seen as baptisms continued at over 100,000 per year (around 200,000 in 1976). However, the organization still continued to lose more members than it gained for several years after 1975, until 1979 when numbers started to recover and increase again.

In 1980, the Society acknowledged some responsibility of the 1975 incident. "With the appearance of the book Life Everlasting-in Freedom of the Sons of God, and its comments as to how appropriate it would be for the millennial reign of Christ to parallel the seventh millennium of man’s existence, considerable expectation was aroused regarding the year 1975. There were statements made then, and thereafter, stressing that this was only a possibility. Unfortunately, however, along with such cautionary information, there were other statements published that implied that such realization of hopes by that year was more of a probability than a mere possibility. It is to be regretted that these latter statements apparently overshadowed the cautionary ones and contributed to a build up of the expectation already initiated." — The Watchtower magazine, 15 March 1980 p.17

Recent changes

In 1995 changes regarding their understanding of the statement "this generation" made by Jesus were published. During the previous four decades, Jehovah’s Witnesses had taught that Jesus was referring to the generation living in 1914, which would not die before Armageddon came. "Those persons yet remaining of that generation are now very old. However, some of them will still be alive to see the end of this wicked system." (You Can Live Forever In Paradise On Earth, published 1982, rev. 1989, p154).

Previously, the proper interpretation of the word "generation" itself was believed to be "beyond question, that which takes a ‘generation’ in the ordinary sense…or for those who are living at the given period." The belief was that "from 1914 a generation shall not pass till all is fulfilled, and amidst a great time of trouble."^[a]

As the generation of 1914 dwindled in numbers, the Society used this for many decades as evidence that the end was "very near and immediately impending." This doctrine was discarded when the youngest had reached 80 years of age. A "new light" interpretation of "this generation" was then published in The Watchtower magazine of 1 November 1995.(Watchtower 1995a)

The Witnesses’ current teaching regarding the meaning of the term “this generation” is that "in the final fulfillment of Jesus’ prophecy today, ‘this generation’ apparently refers to the peoples of earth who see the sign of Christ’s presence but fail to mend their ways."(Watchtower 1995b) Jehovah’s Witnesses still believe that Armageddon is imminent. That same article continued, "Does our more precise viewpoint on ‘this generation’ mean that Armageddon is further away than we had thought? Not at all! Though we at no time have known the ‘day and hour,’ Jehovah God has always known it, and he does not change. (Malachi 3:6) … The need to keep awake is more critical than it has ever been. Jehovah has revealed to us ‘the things that must shortly take place,’ and we should respond with an absorbing sense of urgency."

At the same time, the Watch Tower Society changed part of the wording of the stated purpose of the Awake! magazine from "the Creator’s promise of a peaceful and secure new world before the generation that saw the events of 1914 passes away" to "the Creator’s promise of a peaceful and secure new world that is about to replace the present, wicked lawless system of things."

The Witnesses’ viewpoint of the "end of the world" differs from other apocalyptic religions. They do not believe that the physical earth will be destroyed, but rather that both the wicked and unbelievers will be eternally destroyed along with all "worldly" institutions (governments, non-Witness religions, etc.) It is their belief that the earth will be restored to an Eden-like paradise with Jehovah as sovereign and Jesus Christ as King designate.

Jehovah’s Witnesses and their families

Being one of Jehovah’s Witnesses and having other family members who are not can create strained relationships. When holidays come around (e.g. Christmas, Easter, Birthdays), some Witnesses may feel attendance or participation in holiday parties or gatherings violates their conscience, whether or not other, non-Witness family members choose to attend. It is because of this that many non-Witness family members of Jehovah’s Witnesses feel they are being shunned or that their Witness family members are ‘not allowed’ to be around them at all. This is, for the most part untrue, even though some Witnesses have cut off ties with ‘non-believing’ family members. Association with family members who are not Witnesses is not discouraged to the same extent as with non-relatives, as Witnesses believe they still have responsibilities to their respective families.

In families where all are Jehovah’s Witnesses, shunning of a disfellowshipped family member sometimes occurs. The September 15, 1981 Watchtower explains how disfellowshipping impacts family relationships. "The fact is that when a Christian gives himself over to sin and has to be disfellowshipped, he forfeits much: his approved standing with God;….sweet fellowship with the brothers, including much of the association he had with Christian relatives." (page 31) Those who voluntarily disassociate or resign from Jehovah’s Witnesses similarly forfeit much of the association they have with their Witness relatives. If a relative who is disfellowshipped lives in the same household with Jehovah’s Witnesses, this means the Witness family members will minimize spiritual contact. Day to day activities may be affected, including eating meals at the same table. The August 2002 Our Kingdom Ministry, page 3 explains: "Thus, it would be left to members of the family to decide on the extent to which the disfellowshipped family member would be included when eating or engaging in other household activities. And yet, they would not want to give brothers with whom they associate the impression that everything is the same as it was before the disfellowshipping occurred."

Regarding contact with a disfellowshipped relative living outside the home, a 1988 Watchtower counseled: "It might be possible to have almost no contact at all with the relative. Even if there were some family matters requiring contact, this certainly would be kept to a minimum." (April 15, 1988, p. 28) "Hence, we also avoid social fellowship with an expelled person. This would rule out joining him in a picnic, party, or trip to the shops or theater or sitting down to a meal with him either in the home or at a restaurant." (Our Kingdom Ministry, August 2002, page 4.)

Witnesses feel that disfellowshipping and shunning can have the beneficial effect of restoring an errant former member to the religion. Critics feel that this policy holds some people captive who might otherwise leave the religion but are afraid of facing shunning from their Witness relatives. The psychological impact of shunning disfellowshipped or disassociated relatives can be extremely painful for both members and ex-members.