The beliefs and practices of Jehovah’s Witnesses are based on the Bible teachings of its founder, Charles Taze Russell and his successors, Joseph Franklin Rutherford and Nathan Homer Knorr. Since 1976 the beliefs of Jehovah’s Witnesses have been based on decisions made at closed meetings of the Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses. The Jehovah’s Witness beliefs are propagated through The Watchtower magazine and other publications of Jehovah’s Witnesses, and at conventions and congregation meetings. Members of the Jehovah’s Witnesses are expected to adhere to all such doctrines without criticism or dissent.

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that the present “age” of human existence is about to be terminated with the direct intervention of Jehovah God, who will use Jesus Christ to fully establish his heavenly government over Earth, destroying existing human governments and non-Jehovah’s Witnesses, and creating a cleansed society of true worshipers. Their mission is to preach the “good news”, proselytizing to as many converts as possible in the remaining time before Armageddon. All members of the Jehovah’s Witnesses are expected to take an active part in preaching what they term “the truth”.

Jehovah’s Witnesses endeavor to remain separate from secular society, which is regarded as a place of moral contamination and under the control of Satan the Devil, refusing any political and military activity and limiting social contact with non-Jehovah’s Witnesses. Members practice a strict moral code, forbidding adultery, premarital sex and homosexuality. Drug abuse, smoking and excessive consumption of alcohol are prohibited, as are blood transfusions. Discipline within congregations is maintained by a system of judicial committees, which have the power to expel members (disfellowshipping) who breach organizational rules and demand their shunning by other Jehovah’s Witnesses. The threat of shunning also serves to scare off other members from dissident behavior.

Watch Tower Society publications teach that Jehovah’s Witnesses alone represent true Christianity and for that reason they refuse all ecumenical relations with other religious denominations. Members are expected to attend all congregation meetings that are held in local Kingdom Halls, as well as regular large-scale conventions, which are highly structured and based on material from Watch Tower publications.

Jehovah’s Witness Beliefs

Source of doctrines

Jehovah’s Witness beliefs and doctrines are established by the Governing Body, which assumes responsibility for interpreting and applying scripture. The Governing Body is described as the “spokesman” for God’s “faithful and discreet slave class” (the approximately 10,000 remaining “anointed” Jehovah’s Witnesses), although in practice it seeks neither advice nor approval from any “anointed” Witnesses other than high-ranking members at Brooklyn Bethel when making decisions or when producing material for publications and conventions. All members are expected to abide by the doctrines and organizational requirements as determined by the Governing Body. Watch Tower publications strongly discourage Witnesses from formulating doctrines reached through independent Bible research. Members who promote privately-developed teachings contrary to those of the Governing Body may be disfellowshipped.

Organization

Jehovah’s Witness beliefs and doctrines are underpinned by a belief that Jehovah God employs and directs an organization on Earth and deals with humanity only through that organization. The organization is identified as the “worldwide association” of Jehovah’s Witnesses, functioning under the direction of the Watch Tower Society. The organization is said to be theocratic, “ruled from the divine Top down, and not from the rank and file up”. All people not in God’s organization are said to be members of Satan’s organization. Watch Tower publications teach that the Bible is an “organizational book” that does not belong to individuals and that the Bible cannot be properly understood without guidance by “Jehovah’s visible organization”.

Jehovah’s Witnesses undergoing baptism are required to publicly confirm that they are associating themselves “with God’s spirit-directed organization”, thereby submitting themselves to its direction and judicial system. Watch Tower publications urge Witnesses to demonstrate loyalty to the organization without dissent, even at the cost of family ties. Loyalty to the organization is said to require a full involvement in public preaching and regular meeting attendance.

Sociologist Andrew Holden has observed that Witnesses see no distinction between loyalty to their God Jehovah and to the Watchtower Society itself and other researchers have claimed that challenging the views of those higher up the hierarchical ladder is regarded as tantamount to challenging Jehovah God himself.

Restoration of “true” Christianity

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that after the death of the apostles, the early congegregations embarked on a “Great Apostasy”, diverging from the original teachings of Jesus on several major points. Influenced by Restorationism in the 19th century, Charles Taze Russell and his associates formed a Bible study group in the 1870s in Allegheny, Pennsylvania, developing teachings that they considered to be a revival of “the great truths taught by Jesus and the Apostles”, in what the Watch Tower Society today says was a return to original Christianity. Although many of their fundamental teachings have changed over the years, Jehovah’s Witnesses have consistently claimed to be the only true religion.

Bible

The entire Bible (the same as Protestant canon of scripture) is according to Jehovah’s Witness beliefs the inspired, inerrant word of Jehovah God. Jehovah’s Witnesses accept the Bible as scientifically and historically accurate and reliable and interpret much of it literally, while also accepting it contains much symbolism. Jehovah’s Witnesses base all of their beliefs on the Bible, as interpreted by the Governing Body.

Jehovah’s Witnesses use the terms “Hebrew” and “Christian Greek” scriptures rather than “Old” and “New” Testaments to avoid implication that the Old Testament is outdated or inferior. They believe that the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) contain prophecy that was fulfilled in Jesus Christ, and that the books of the Christian Greek Scriptures (New Testament) are primarily directed to the 144,000 chosen by God for life in heaven. The Watch Tower Society’s New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, which Jehovah’s Witnesses use almost exclusively, reflects their view that God’s name, as represented by the Tetragrammaton, should be rendered as “Jehovah”, in the tradition of earlier versions of the King James Version, rather than “God” or “Lord”. They also accept the usage “Yahweh”.

Jehovah God

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe Jehovah God is the creator and supreme being. Jehovah’s Witnesses reject the Trinity doctrine, which they consider unscriptural. They view God as the Father, an invisible spirit “person”, and therefore separate from the Son, Jesus Christ. The Holy Spirit is described as God’s active force, rather than the third person of the Trinity. They say he is “infinite, but approachable”. He is not omnipresent, but has a location in heaven. They believe it is possible to have a personal relationship with him as a friend; that God is kind and merciful, and would not eternally “torture” wicked people. Being respectful of the principle of free will, he does not force his sovereignty on people, choosing to save only those who want to serve him, even though the course of mankind in general may lead them to harm.

Jehovah’s Witnesses teach that the Almighty God must be distinguished by his personal name – Jehovah. The name is a common modern representation of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton, or four-letter name of the Eternal, which is YHWH. The use of his personal name is regarded as vital for true worship and Jehovah’s Witnesses rarely speak of “God” without prefacing the term with the name “Jehovah”. The term “Lord”, although common in the Bible, is rarely used by Witnesses when speaking about God. Because no other religion uses the name “Jehovah” with the same prevalence, they believe their religion alone is making God’s name known in harmony with scriptures such as John 17:6.

Jesus Christ

Jesus is acknowledged as God’s “only begotten” Son. As such, he began his life in heaven. He is described as God’s first creation and the “exact representation of God”, but is believed to be a separate entity and not part of a Trinity. Jesus is said to have been used by God in the creation of all other things. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Jesus is also known in the Bible as the Archangel, Michael and “the Word,” of John 1:1 in his pre-human existence. His birth on earth was accomplished when he willingly allowed himself to be transferred, by God, from heaven to the womb of the virgin, Mary. While on earth, Jesus was executed as a sacrifice to atone for mankind’s sins. He ultimately becomes “eternal father” to the human family.

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that after his death, Jesus appeared to his disciples and convinced them of his resurrection, and then ascended into heaven to sit at Jehovah’s right hand until he would become the promised king of God’s heavenly kingdom. Jesus acts as the Mediator of a “new covenant” referred to in Jeremiah 31:31, Luke 22:20, and Hebrews 9:15; 12:24, directly mediating only for those going to heaven (the 144,000). Those with an earthly hope, and who therefore have no mediator, are said to be beneficiaries of that covenant. Jesus remains subordinate to God even in all his heavenly glory. Witnesses reject the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary, who they believe bore more children after Jesus.

Cross / stake

The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society used the Cross and Crown symbol on tombstones, and on its publications until 1931. Since 1936, Jehovah’s Witnesses have rejected the idea that Jesus died on a cross, and instead teach that he died on a single wooden stake, asserting that the Koiné Greek word σταυρος stauros refers to a single upright post. They view the cross to be of pagan origins and an object of idol worship.

Satan the Devil

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Satan is God’s chief adversary and the invisible ruler of the world. He was at one time a perfect son of God but developed feelings of self-importance and craved worship that belonged to God. Satan persuaded Adam and Eve to obey him rather than God, raising the issue – often referred to as a “controversy” – of whether people, having been granted freedom of will, would obey God under both temptation and persecution. The issue is said to be whether God can rightfully claim to be sovereign of the universe. Instead of destroying Satan, God decided to test the loyalty of the rest of humankind and to prove to the rest of creation that Satan was a liar. Watch Tower publications teach that Satan misleads people on Earth, and that he and the demons are the reason for distress on the earth. Satan and his demons are said to have been cast down to earth from heaven in 1914, marking the beginning of the the “last days” and causing much of today’s troubles.

God’s messianic Kingdom

Jehovah’s Witness publications teach that God’s Kingdom is a government in heaven, ruled by Jesus Christ and 144,000 people drawn from the Earth. The kingdom is viewed as the means by which Jehovah God will accomplish his original purpose for the Earth, bringing about a world free of crime, sickness, death and poverty, ultimately transforming the Earth into a paradise. The kingdom is said to have been the focal point of Jesus’ ministry on Earth and was established in 1914.

Eschatology of Jehovah’s Witnesses

A central teaching of Jehovah’s Witnesses is that the current world era, or “system of things”, entered its “last days” in 1914 and faces imminent destruction through intervention by Jehovah God and Jesus Christ, leading to deliverance for those who worship God in truth. This judgment will begin with the destruction by the United Nations of false religion, which they identify as “Babylon the Great”, or the “harlot”, of Revelation 17. This development will mark the beginning of the Great Tribulation. Satan will subsequently attack Jehovah’s Witnesses, an action that will prompt God to begin the war of Armageddon, during which all forms of government and all people not counted as Christ’s “sheep” (thus all non-Jehovah’s Witnesses), or true followers, will be destroyed. After Armageddon, God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth, which will be transformed into a paradise similar to the Garden of Eden.

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that after Armageddon, most of those who had died prior to God’s intervention will gradually be resurrected to a “day of judgment” lasting for the thousand years referred to in Revelation 20. This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection, not on past deeds. At the end of the thousand years a final test will take place when Satan is brought back to mislead perfect mankind. The end result will be a fully tested, glorified human race. Christ will then hand all authority back to God.

Watch Tower Society publications teach that Jesus Christ returned invisibly and began to rule in heaven as king in October 1914. The resulting ouster of Satan from heaven to the earth has brought a period of “woe” to mankind, as prophesied in Revelation 12. They assert that the Greek word parousia (translated in most English Bible translations as “coming” when referring to Christ) is more accurately rendered as “presence,” with his return perceived only as a series of “signs”. Thus this Second Coming would be an invisible presence, lasting for an extended time.

Jehovah’s Witnesses base their beliefs about the significance of 1914 on the Watch Tower Society’s interpretation of biblical chronology, which is hinged on the belief that 607 BCE was the date of Jerusalem’s destruction and the beginning of the Babylonian captivity. They believe that Daniel chapter 4 prophesied a period of 2,520 years starting with 607 BCE and ending at 1914 AD. (Non-Witness sources date Jerusalem’s destruction to 587/586 BCE, some 20 years later.) They equate this period with the “Gentile Times” or “the appointed times of the nations,” a phrase taken from Luke 21:24. They believe that when the Babylonians conquered Jerusalem, the line of kings descended from David was interrupted, and that God’s throne was “trampled on” from then until Jesus began ruling in October 1914. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe their doctrine is confirmed by world events since 1914, including wars, famine, more severe earthquakes and increasing lawlessness, which they see as fulfillment of the “sign” of Christ’s presence. They believe that their preaching work is also part of that sign, citing Matthew 24:14.

Jehovah’s Witnesses teach that in 1918, Jesus resurrected to heavenly life those of the 144,000 (the “anointed”) who had already died; since 1918, any “anointed” are individually resurrected to heavenly life at the time of their death to serve as kings alongside Christ in his heavenly government.

Salvation

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that all humanity is in a sinful state. Release from this is possible because Jesus’ shed blood provided a payment, or atonement for the sins of humankind. Salvation is said to be a result of the undeserved kindness (grace) of Jehovah God, but to be saved, one needs faith, demonstrated by Christian works, including the proper discharge of family duties, kindness and concern for others and proper conduct, as well as endurance in “zealous” preaching, which is singled out as the means by which Witnesses attain salvation.

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe there are two destinations for those saved by Jehovah God. They say the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to precisely 144,000, who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over Earth. The remainder have the hope of living forever in an earthly paradise. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that the only scriptural hope of surviving Armageddon comes through adherence to the biblical teachings, including faith in Jesus’ shed blood. Those who do not show such faith and become part of God’s “organization” face destruction at Armageddon. Watch Tower publications make no explicit claim about whether small children or the mentally ill will survive, but say God’s judgment will be righteous and merciful. After Armageddon, most people will be resurrected with the prospect of living forever. They believe those who have already been condemned by God will not be resurrected. These are said to include any killed at Armageddon, or those in “Gehenna”, or doomed to everlasting destruction. Christ will rule for a thousand years, during which time, Earth will be transformed into a paradise, while Satan is abyssed and unable to influence humanity. At the end of the thousand years, Satan will be released again to mislead as many people as he can. The final judgment will then take place, when Satan and all those corrupted by him will be destroyed forever, with evil never occurring again. Those who survive that final test will live forever.

Death

Jehovah’s Witnesses regard the soul as mortal, based on the statement at Ezekiel 18:4 that “the soul that sins, it shall die” and thus believe the soul does not continue to live after one dies. Death is considered a state of non-existence, based on their understanding of Ecclesiastes 9:5, “For the living know that they shall die: but the dead know not any thing.” Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that the only hope for life after death is in the resurrection, (as opposed to an immortal soul) which they say involves re-creation by God of the same individual with a new body. They believe that 144,000 people will be resurrected to a heavenly life to be priestly rulers under Christ, but the vast majority, to life on a paradise earth. Resurrected individuals will undergo a final test to determine their eligibility for everlasting life on earth.

Watch Tower publications teach that Hell (hades or sheol) is not a place of fiery torment, but rather the ‘common grave’, a place of unconsciousness. “Gehenna”, the Biblical word commonly translated “hellfire”, is said to describe a judgment of complete destruction, and that no resurrection is possible for anyone in Gehenna. They reason that complete destruction does not allow for literal “torture” of the wicked, as the deceased person lacks consciousness. Based on this, they believe that parables such as that of “the rich man and Lazarus” should not be interpreted literally, and that such references are speaking of symbolic death, not the physical death of actual individuals.

Jehovah’s Witnesses teach that sometimes wicked angels (demons) pretend to be spirits of the dead, and that their deception is the basis for many beliefs about the activities of “dead” people.

Education

Jehovah’s Witnesses are instructed to make their preaching work the top priority in their life. Higher education is discouraged because of the futility of planning secular advancement in a world they believe faces imminent destruction, as well as fears about succumbing to “worldly thinking” and concerns that advanced educated might lead to a lack of humility. Because evangelistic activities take priority over educational success, young Jehovah’s Witnesses rarely progress to college or university, which can be a source of regret in subsequent years among those who are reared in the organization and later defect. Watch Tower publications advise parents to recommend alternatives to university education for their children, suggesting associate degrees from community or technical colleges or short courses in subjects such as office administration, automotive repair, computing, or hairdressing. They urge that young Jehovah’s Witnesses should pursue higher education only to gain skills to obtain a reasonable living while maintaining flexibility to pursue their “true” vocation, serving God.

Jehovah’s Witnesses provide religious training programs for their members, including the congregational Theocratic Ministry School, Pioneer Service School, Ministerial Training School and Gilead Missionary School, which focus on improving skills for their ministry.

Practices of Jehovah’s Witnesses

Worship

Jehovah’s Witnesses held their meetings for worship and study are at local Kingdom Halls. Jehovah’s Witnessess are assigned to a congregation in whose “territory” they reside and are expected to attend weekly meetings as scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of the Bible and Witness beliefs; traditions of mysticism, glossalalia, creed recitation or periods of silent meditation common in other Christian denominations are absent. During meetings and in other formal circumstances, Jehovah’s Witnesses refer to one another as “Brother” and “Sister”.

The form and content of the meetings is established by the religion’s Brooklyn headquarters, with the content of meetings in any week largely identical around the world. The week’s two meetings are divided into a total of five distinct sections, lasting a total of about four hours, with meetings opened and closed with hymns and brief prayers delivered from the platform. Jehovah’s Witnesses are urged to prepare for all meetings by studying Watch Tower literature from which the content matter is drawn. The Kingdom Halls are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols. Each year, Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a “circuit” gather for one-day and two-day assemblies; several circuits meet once a year for a three-day “district convention”, usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums. Their most important and solemn event is the celebration of the “Lord’s Evening Meal”, or “Memorial of Christ’s Death”.

Weekend meeting

The meeting, usually held on Sunday, comprises a 30-minute public talk by a congregation elder or ministerial servant and a one-hour question-and-answer study of a Bible-based article from The Watchtower magazine, with questions prepared by the Watch Tower Society and the answers provided in the magazine. Jehovah’s Witnesses are encouraged to use their own words to express the ideas in the printed material, though personal contributions from independent study are discouraged.

Midweek meeting

The meeting, typically held in the evening, includes a question-and-answer “Congregation Bible Study” (25 minutes) based on a Watch Tower Society publication; the “Theocratic Ministry School” (30 minutes) designed to train Witnesses in public speaking and proselytizing using talks and rehearsals of doorstop sermons; and the “Service Meeting” (35 minutes), following an agenda set in the Society’s monthly newsletter Our Kingdom Ministry to train Jehovah’s Witnesses for, and encourage “zealous” participation in, the public ministry. Prior to 2009, the midweek meeting consisted of the Theocratic Ministry School and the Service Meeting (each 45 minutes); the Congregation Book Study (1 hour) was typically held on a separate evening, divided into smaller groups in private homes.

Memorial of Christ’s death

Jehovah’s Witnesses commemorate Christ’s death as a ransom or “propitiatory sacrifice” by observing The Lord’s Evening Meal, or Memorial. They celebrate it once each year, noting that it was instituted on the Passover, an annual festival. They observe it on Nisan 14 according to the ancient Jewish lunisolar calendar. Jehovah’s Witnesses beleive that this is the only celebration the Bible commands Christians to observe.

Of those who attend the Memorial, a small minority worldwide partake of the unleavened bread and wine. This is because Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that the majority of the faithful have an earthly hope. Only those who believe they have a heavenly hope, the “remnant” (those still living) of the 144,000 “anointed”, partake of the bread and wine. In 2008, the number of persons who partook worldwide was 9986, whereas the number who attended was 17,790,631. The lowest number of “Memorial Partakers” that the Watchtower Society reported was 8524 in 2005. The number has gone up every year since then. In 2008 the number of Partakers is 17% more than three years before.

The Memorial, held after sunset, includes a talk on the meaning of the celebration and the circulation among the audience of unadulterated red wine and unleavened bread. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe the bread symbolizes Jesus Christ’s body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine symbolises his blood which redeems from sin. They do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation. Because many congregations have no members who claim to be anointed, it is common for the bread and wine to be passed and have no partakers.

Assemblies and Conventions

Each year, Jehovah’s Witnesses hold a “Special Assembly Day” and a two-day “Circuit Assembly”, held in each circuit worldwide. Each circuit comprises several congregations in a geographical area. These are held either in Assembly Halls owned by Jehovah’s Witnesses, or in borrowed or rented facilities, such as public auditoriums. Once a year, Jehovah’s Witnesses come together at larger assemblies called “District Conventions” which are usually three days long. Every fifth year, “International Conventions” are held in selected cities, usually lasting four days, with visiting delegates from other countries. The attendance of some conventions numbers into the hundreds of thousands, with the largest-ever gathering held in New York in 1958 at Yankee Stadium and Polo Grounds with a peak attendance exceeding 250,000.

Evangelism

Jehovah’s Witnesses are required to express their belief in the religion’s doctrines by participating in both organized and spontaneous evangelizing and proselytizing work, with baptism permitted only for those who demonstrate “regular and zealous” participation. Baptism is regarded as an automatic ordination as a minister and from that point Witnesses feel a moral obligation to serve as “publishers”, disseminating Watch Tower doctrines as evangelists of “the Truth”. Watch Tower publications describe house to house visitations as the primary work of Jehovah’s Witnesses in obedience to a “divine command” to preach “the Kingdom good news in all the earth and (make) disciples of people of all the nations”. Jehovah’s Witnesses are placed under continual pressure from Watch Tower publications, meetings and conventions to increase the quality and quantity of their preaching efforts.

Specialized territory maps of residential and commercial areas are prepared within each congregation’s boundaries and distributed to publishers who are responsible for preaching to people within each territory. Jehovah’s Witnesses are instructed to fill out monthly report slips on their preaching activity, listing the hours spent, publications placed with householders and the number of “return visits” made to households where interest had previously been shown. The reports are used to help measure of the “spirituality” of individuals and are critical in determining the eligibility of men as congregation elders and ministerial servants. A Jehovah’s Witness who fails to report for a month is known as an “irregular publisher”; those who have not turned in a field service report for six consecutive months are known as “inactive publishers”.

Jehovah’s Witnesses who can spend at least 840 hours of witnessing during a year (an average of 70 hours per month) can apply for the status of “regular pioneers”, or full-time evangelizers. Witnesses who wish to spend 50 hours in a month can apply to be an “auxiliary pioneer” and can serve in this capacity either a month at a time or consecutively. Some Jehovah’s Witnesses also volunteer for missionary service and are given specialized training at the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead. These individuals dedicate, on average, more than 120 hours a month to their work. As of 1998 there were 2,390 Jehovah’s Witnesses having missionary status serving in 148 “lands”.

Jehovah’s Witnesses have, in the past, used a wide variety of methods to spread their belief, including information marches, where members wore sandwich boards and handed out leaflets, to sound cars (car-mounted phonographs), and syndicated newspaper columns and radio segments devoted to sermons. Between 1924 and 1957, the organization operated a radio station, WBBR, from New York.

Watch Tower literature

Jehovah’s Witnesses make extensive use of Watch Tower Society literature, including books, magazines, booklets and handbills, to spread their beliefs and for use as textbooks at their religious meetings. The publications are produced in many languages, with a small selection available in 410 languages. Their primary publications, The Watchtower and Awake!, are published simultaneously in hundreds of languages and are also available in audio and electronic formats. Issues of both publications are compiled annually into bound volumes, and are also added annually to the Watchtower Library CD-ROM, officially available only to baptized members, which contains many Witness publications from 1950 onwards. New books, brochures, and other items are released at their annual conventions. Additionally, a number of audio cassettes, videocassettes, and DVDs have been produced explaining the group’s beliefs, practices, organization and history. Some of these also provide dramas based on biblical accounts. Since 1942 all Watch Tower literature has been published anonymously.

Publications were sold to the public until the early 1990s, from which point they were offered gratis, with a request for donations. The change in policy was first announced in the United States in February 1990, with one newspaper claiming it was prompted by the loss of a US Supreme Court court case by Jimmy Swaggart Ministries on the issue of sales tax exemption for religious groups. The Watch Tower Society had joined the case as an Amicus curiae, or “friend of the court”. The court ruling would have resulted in the Watch Tower Society having to pay millions of dollars in sales tax if sales of their literature had continued.

Jehovah’s Witnesses are urged to prepare for congregation meetings by studying the assigned Watch Tower literature, and are also expected to read all magazines and books published by the Society. One analysis noted that each year Witnesses are expected to read more than 3000 pages of the Society’s publications, according to its suggested program for personal study. In 1981 this would have included 1536 pages from The Watchtower and Awake!, 48 pages from Our Kingdom Ministry, 384 pages of a book for the congregation book study, 384 pages from the Yearbook, 360 pages of the Theocratic Ministry School textbook and 258 pages of assembly releases. Much of the literature is extensively illustrated, with sociologist Andrew Holden observing utopian, post-Armageddon images of happy Witnesses in bright sunshine and pristine environments, often playing with formerly wild animals such as lions and tigers, in sharp contrast to dark-coloured images of unfavourable activities such as murders, burglaries and promiscuity that highlight the moral dangers outside the organization.

Conversion

To become one of Jehovah’s Witnesses, a systematic Bible study course is followed. One must also accept Jesus’ ransom sacrifice and repent of sins, and make a personal dedication to God. Participation in the preaching work is required, as well as regular meeting attendance.

The elders ask a series of questions to ensure that the person understands and accepts the Jehovah’s Witnesses beliefs. This is done in preparation for baptism. Baptisms are normally performed at assemblies and conventions. At these baptisms, the candidates make “public declaration” of their prior dedication to God. The speaker typically asks the candidates, “On the basis of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ, have you repented of your sins and dedicated yourself to Jehovah to do his will?” After the candidates answer with an affirmative “yes” and agree that their dedication and baptism “identifies of Jehovah’s Witnesses in association with God’s spirit-directed organization”, they can undergo water immersion.

Jehovah’s Witnesses and congregational discipline

Formal discipline is administered by congregation Elders. In the event that an accusation of serious sin is made concerning a baptized member, if there is sufficient evidence, a tribunal or judicial committee is formed to determine guilt, administer help and possibly apply sanctions.

Disfellowshipping is the most severe form of discipline administered. Before taking this step, the judicial committee must determine that the individual has committed a “serious sin”, and that there is no evidence of true repentance. To judge that repentance is genuine, members of the judicial committee ask questions and review the actions of the accused member. Baptized members who openly reject Jehovah’s Witness beliefs can be disfellowshipped for apostasy. Once the decision to disfellowship has been made, a person has seven days to appeal. After the seven days, if the person has not appealed, the disfellowshipping will be announced to the congregation; disfellowshipping does not take effect until the announcement is made to the congregation. After a person is disfellowshipped, the person is shunned by all baptized members. Exceptions to this would include cases where a member was forced to have commercial dealings with a member who is disfellowshipped, or if the disfellowshipped member is living with family members who are baptized. In these cases, the Witness are not permitted to speak about matters pertaining Jehovah’s Witness beliefs, except in the case of parents conducting a bible study with a disfellowshipped minor. The extent to which disfellowshipped or disassociated relatives living in the same household is included in family life is said to be left to the discretion of the family. But most family members living outside the home who are disfellowshipped have minimal or no contact at all.

Reproof involves sins that could lead to disfellowshipping. Ones considered “truly repentant” are reproved rather than disfellowshipped. Reproof is given “before all onlookers.” If the sin is private in nature, the reproof would involve just the individual(s) involved. If the sin is known generally by the entire congregation or the community, an announcement is made informing the congregation that the person has been reproved. Later, without disclosing names or private details, one of the Elders gives a separate talk ensuring that the congregation understood the sin, its dangers, and how to avoid it. Certain restrictions on congregation privileges will apply to the reproved one, until the Elders have determined that the member has regained “spiritual strength.” Restrictions may include not sharing in meeting parts, not commenting at meeting parts and not praying for a group. The length of the restricted period is dependent upon the elders. One cannot “pioneer” or “auxiliary pioneer” for at least one year after reproof is given.

Marking is practiced if a person’s course of action is regarded as a violation of Jehovah’s Witness beliefs, reflecting badly on the congregation, but is not a disfellowshipping offense. The person is strongly counseled. If, after repeated counsel sessions, the person still pursues the disturbing course, he might be ‘marked’, which involves an announcement stating that the actions in question are wrong, without naming the individual involved. Congregation members limit social contact with that person. The purpose of this is to shame the person into correcting their actions. They do not completely shun the “marked” individual, but social contact is minimised.

Family life

The family structure is patriarchal. According to Jehovah’s Witness beliefs husbands are considered the final authority of family decisions. He is the head of his family. He must only have one wife. Wives should be submissive to their husbands and husbands are to have deep respect and love for their wives. Husbands are instructed to treat their wives as Jesus treated his followers. He should not hurt or mistreat his family in any way. The father should be hard-working in providing necessities to his family. He must also provide for them in a spiritual capacity. This includes religious instruction for the family, and taking the lead in preaching activities. Parental discipline for children should not be in a harsh, cruel way. Children are instructed to obey their parents.

Married couples are encouraged to speak with local elders if they are having problems. Married couples can separate in the case of physical abuse and neglect, or if one partner attempts to hinder the other from being a Jehovah’s Witness. Divorce (with the ability to remarry) is permissible only on the grounds of adultery, based on their understanding of Jesus’ words at Matthew 5:32 and Matthew 19:9.

Morality

Jehovah’s Witness beliefs regarding sexual behavior reflects conservative Christian views. Abortion is considered murder. Homosexuality, premarital, and extramarital sex are considered sins. Smoking, use of addictive drugs, and drunkenness are prohibited. Modesty is heavily encouraged in dress and grooming. Entertainment promoting immoral, “demonic”, or violent themes is strongly discouraged. In certain areas, personal grooming such as beards, long hair or earrings for men, along with any dress or grooming that is deemed to be rebellious or immodest is discouraged in everyday settings.

Gambling by making money through the losses of others is viewed as a “form of greed” and therefore prohibited. The trading of stocks, shares and bonds is viewed as acceptable.

Blood and Blood Transfusions

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that the Bible prohibits ingesting blood, and that this includes the storage and transfusion of blood, including in cases of medical emergency. This belief was introduced in 1945, and has been elaborated upon since then. Accordingly, the organization has established ‘Hospital Information Services’ responsible for education and facilitation of bloodless surgery. This service also maintains ‘Hospital Liaison Committees’, whose function is to provide support to adherents.

Although accepted by the majority of Jehovah’s Witnesses, evidence indicates a minority does not wholly endorse this doctrine. Facets of the belief have drawn praise and criticism from members of the medical community.

Certain medical procedures involving blood are specifically prohibited under the Watchtower organization’s blood doctrine. Other procedures are not doctrinally prohibited. For procedures where there is no specific doctrinal prohibition, individuals are to obtain details from medical personnel and then make a personal decision.

Use of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and blood plasma are specifically prohibited under this doctrine. Other fractions derived from blood are not prohibited. However, the Watchtower organization states, “some products derived from one of the four primary components may be so similar to the function of the whole component and carry on such a life-sustaining role in the body that most Christians would find them objectionable.”

Separateness

Jehovah’s Witnesses are taught that it is vital they remain “separate from the world” in harmony with Jesus’ description of his followers at John 17:14-16. Watch Tower publications define the “world” as “the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah’s approved servants” and teach that it is ruled by Satan and a place of danger and moral contamination. Witnesses manifest their world-renouncing beliefs in many ways. They avoid involvement in social controversies, remain politically neutral and do not seek public office. The Watch Tower Society has stated that voting in political elections is a personal conscience decision, though a Jehovah’s Witness who takes any action considered to be a “violation of Christian neutrality” may face religious sanctions. They refuse participation in ecumenical and interfaith activities, abstain from celebrating religious holidays and reject many customs they claim have pagan origins. They do not work in industries associated with the military, do not serve in the armed services and refuse national military service, which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment. They do not salute or pledge allegiance to the flag or sing national anthems and patriotic songs and demand high standards of morality within their ranks.

Witnesses are urged to restrict to the minimum their social contact with non-members because of perceived dangers of worldly association.

Celebrations

Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are observed, though they avoid incorporating certain traditions they see to have pagan origins. They may use rings in wedding ceremonies, The Watchtower stating that even if they were first used by pagans that doesn’t necessarily rule out their use for Christians.

Other common celebrations and religious or national holidays such as birthdays, Halloween, and Christmas are not celebrated because they believe that these continue to involve “false religious beliefs or activities.” Watch Tower Society publications rule out the celebration of Mother’s Day because of a claimed link with pagan gods and concerns that giving “special honor and worship” to mothers is a form of creature worship” that could turn people away from God. The Society also directs Witnesses to shun May Day, New Year’s Day and Valentine’s Day celebrations because of their pagan origins.

Their opposition to birthdays is said to be based on how the Bible presents them. Watch Tower Society publications note that the only birthday celebrations explicitly mentioned in the Bible are Herod’s and Pharaoh’s. Both were associated with executions, and neither celebrant was a servant of God. (Though some religions interpret Job 1:4 to indicate birthday feasts of Job’s sons, Jehovah’s Witnesses interpret them as a circuit of feasts from one house to the next.) The Bible does not show Jesus or his apostles celebrating birthdays and The Watchtower claims the absence of any record of the date of the birth of Jesus or his apostles provides a clear implication that “God does not want us to celebrate any of these birthdays”.

Witnesses typically observe wedding anniversaries, with the Watch Tower Society noting that wedding anniversaries apparently do not stem from pagan origins.

Funding of activities

Jehovah’s Witnesses fund their activities, such as publishing, constructing and operating facilities, evangelism, and disaster relief via donations. There is no tithing or collection, but all are encouraged to donate to the organization; Witnesses typically provide an opportunity for members of the public to make such donations as they encounter them in their preaching work. Donation boxes labeled for several purposes, are located in Kingdom Halls and other meeting facilities. Generally there is a contribution box for operating expenses locally, a Kingdom Hall fund for helping other Witnesses around the world needing a Kingdom Hall, and a general fund for the “Worldwide Work”, which includes the printing of literature, organization of conventions, supporting missionaries and disaster relief, and other operating expenses of the organization.

The accounts (including donations) and the financial operation of the local congregation are reviewed monthly with the entire congregation at the Service Meeting. (This meeting is open to the public.) Donations are also accepted via mail, and the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society can be named as a beneficiary to an estate, and also accepts donations in the form of life insurance policies, pension plans, bank accounts, certificates of deposit, retirement accounts, stocks and bonds, real estate, annuities and trusts.

Because the Watchtower Society teaches that ” … the number of anointed ones on the earth has decreased over the decades… ” (Watchtower Feb 15 2009 par.14 pp.27-28) it is remarkable to see the number of “Memorial Partakers” is rising despite these recent remarks in The Watchtower. Don’t the brothers on Bethel’s writing department consult the annual service reports? In 2008 there was almost a 10% increase in the number of Partakers over 2007! According to the latest service report there were 9986 “Memorial Partakers” in 2008.

This was not a new trend because there were increases in the previous years too. The lowest number of “Memorial Partakers” that the Watchtower Society reported was 8524 in 2005. The number has gone up every year since then. In 2008 the number of Partakers is 17% more than three years before.

The decreasing number of “The Remnant” has long been seen as a proof that we live in the “Last Days”:

“Six Convincing Lines of Evidence” that we are in the Last Days. … Sixth, the number of genuine anointed disciples of Christ is dwindling, though some will evidently still be on earth when the great tribulation begins. Most of the remnant are quite elderly, and over the years the number of those who are truly anointed has been getting smaller.” (Watchtower 2000 Jan 15 p.13)

But the number of “The Remnant” is actually increasing rapidly.

Watch the following video for a better insight into this subject:

In this article you’ll find a reprint of the Will and Testament of Charles Taze Russell that was soon interpreted in different ways by Russel’s successors.

SOME BACKGROUND INFORMATION
During his return from a ministerial tour of the western and southwestern United States, the already ill Pastor Charles Taze Russell died from the result of multiple ailments on the night of October 31, 1916 in a train car as it approached Pampa, Texas.

On January 6, 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherfor was successfully elected second President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society despite a series of disputes over the election process. New by-laws were passed at the same meeting that strengthened the President’s authority. Initially, the board of directors for the Watch Tower Society accepted this change, but four of the board members withdrew their support. Further disputes arose over interpretation of sections in the Will and Testament of Charles Taze Russell dealing with the future contents of Zion’s Watch Tower magazine, as well as who, if any, had authority to print new literature.

The June 20, 1917 meeting of the full board of directors tabled for one month a proposal to return control of the Society to the board,but Rutherford prevented their attempt. Matters came to a head on July 17, 1917 when the book The Finished Mystery was published. Rutherford announced that he was dismissing the four directors and was replacing them with new members. Dissension and schisms ensued in congregations worldwide as a result of these events, and of the consequences of new predictions made for the years 1918, 1920 and 1925.

Those remaining loyal to Rutherford, however, eventually adopted the new name Jehovah’s Witnesses in 1931, and changed the name of the Society from Watch Tower to Watchtower. As their numbers began to grow, Rutherford sought to change the organizational structure of the Watchtower Society, shifting the long-held independence of the congregations, to a more centralized role, where elders began to be chosen by the Society, instead of by the local congregations. Many of those Bible Students who had ceased association with the changing Watchtower Society attempted to regroup in 1929 with the First Annual Bible Students Convention held in the old Pittsburgh “Bible House” long used by Pastor Russell.

Below you’ll find a reprint of the Will and Testament of Charles Taze Russell that was soon interpreted in different ways by Russel’s successors:

Will and Testament of Charles Taze Russell

Having at various times during past years donated to the WATCH TOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY all of my personal possessions except a small personal bank account of approximately two hundred dollars, in the Exchange National Bank of Pittsburgh, which will properly be paid over to my wife if she survives me, I have merely love and Christian good wishes to leave to all of the dear members of the Bible House Family—and all other dear colaborers in the Harvest work—yea, for all of the household of faith in every place who call upon the name of the Lord Jesus as their Redeemer.

However, in view of the fact that in donating the journal ZION’S WATCH TOWER, the OLD THEOLOGY QUARTERLY and the copyrights of the MILLENNIAL DAWN SCRIPTURE STUDIES Books and various other booklets, hymn-books, etc., to the WATCH TOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY, I did so with the explicit understanding that I should have full control of all the interests of these publications during my life time, and that after my decease they should be conducted according to my wishes. I now herewith set forth the said wishes—my will respecting the same—as follows:

AN EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF FIVE
I direct that the entire editorial charge of ZION’S WATCH TOWER shall be in the hands of a committee of five brethren whom I exhort to great carefulness and fidelity to the Truth. All articles appearing in the columns of ZION’S WATCH TOWER shall have the unqualified approval of at least three of the committee of five, and I urge that if any matter approved by three be known or supposed to be contrary to the views of one or both of the other members of the committee, such articles shall be held over for thought, prayer and discussion for three months before being published—that so far as possible the unity of the faith and the bonds of peace may be maintained in the Editorial management of the journal.

The names of the Editorial Committee (with such changes as may from time to time occur) shall all be published in each number of the journal—but it shall not in any manner be indicated by whom the various articles appearing in the journal are written. It will be sufficient that the fact be recognized that the articles are approved by the majority of the committee.

As the Society is already pledged to me that it will publish no other periodicals, it shall also be required that the Editorial Committee shall write for or be connected with no other publications in any manner or degree. My object in these requirements is to safeguard the committee and the journal from any spirit of ambition or pride or headship and that the Truth may be recognized and appreciated for its own worth, and that the Lord may more particularly be recognized as the Head of the Church and the Fountain of Truth.

Copies of my Sunday discourses published in the daily newspapers covering a period of several years have been preserved and may be used as editorial matter for The WATCH TOWER or not, as the committee may think best, but my name shall not be attached nor any indication whatever given respecting the authorship.

Those named below as members of the Editorial Committee (subject to their acceptance) are supposed by me to be thoroughly loyal to the doctrines of the Scriptures— especially so to the doctrine of the Ransom—that there is no acceptance with God and no salvation to eternal life except through faith in Christ and obedience to His Word and its spirit. If any of the designated ones shall at any time find themselves out of harmony with this provision they will be violating their consciences and hence committing sin if they continue to remain members of this Editorial Committee— knowing that so to do would be contrary to the spirit and intention of this provision.

The Editorial Committee is self-perpetuating, in that should one of these members die or resign, it will be the duty of the remainder to elect his successor, that the journal may never have an issue without a full Editorial Committee of five. I enjoin upon the committee named great caution in respect to the election of others to their number—that purity of life, clearness in the Truth, zeal for God, love for the brethren and faithfulness to the Redeemer shall be prominent characteristics of the one elected. In addition to the five named for the committee I have named five others from whom I prefer that selection should be made for any vacancies in the Editorial Committee, before going outside for a general selection—unless in the interim, between the making of this Will and the time of my death, something should occur which would seem to indicate these as less desirable or others more desirable for filling the vacancies mentioned. The names of the Editorial Committee are as follows:

WILLIAM E. PAGE

WILLIAM E. VAN AMBURGH

HENRY CLAY ROCKWELL

E. W. BRENNEISEN

F. H. ROBISON. The names of the five whom I suggest as possibly amongst the most suitable from which to fill vacancies in the Editorial Committee are as follows: A. E. Burgess, Robert Hirsh Isaac Hoskins, Geo. H. Fisher (Scranton), J. F. Rutherford Dr. John Edgar.

The following announcement shall appear in each issue of THE WATCH TOWER, followed by the names of the Editorial Committee:

ZION’S WATCH TOWER EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
This journal is published under the supervision of an Editorial Committee, at least three of whom must have read and have approved as TRUTH each and every article appearing in these columns. The names of the Committee now serving are: (names to follow.)

As for compensation, I think it wise to maintain the Society’s course of the past in respect to salaries—that none be paid; that merely reasonable expenses be allowed to those who serve the Society or its work in any manner. In harmony with the course of the Society, I suggest that the provision for the Editorial Committee, or the three that shall be actively engaged, shall consist of not more than a provision for their food and shelter and ten dollars per month with such a moderate allowance for wife or children or others dependent upon them for support as the Society’s Board of Directors shall consider proper, just, reasonable— that no provision be made for the laying up of money.

I desire that the OLD THEOLOGY QUARTERLY continue to appear as at present, so far as the opportunities for distribution and the laws of the land will permit, and that its issues shall consist of reprints from the old issues of THE WATCH TOWER or extracts from my discourses, but that no name shall appear in connection with the matter unless the same is required by law.

It is my wish that the same rules apply to the German the French, the Italian, the Danish and the Swedish or any other foreign publications controlled or supported by the WATCH TOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY.

I will that a copy of this paper be sent to each one whose name has appeared above as of the Editorial Committee or the list from whom others of that committee may be chosen to fill vacancies and also to each member of the Board of Directors of the WATCH TOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY. This shall be done immediately on my death being reported so that within a week, if possible, the persons named as of the Editorial Committee may be heard from, their communications being addressed to the Vice-President of the WATCH TOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY—whoever may be holding that office at that time. The answers of those appointed shall be to the point, indicating their acceptance or rejection of the provisions and terms specified. A reasonable time shall be allowed for any one mentioned who may be absent from the city or from the country. Meantime the remainder of the committee of at least three shall proceed to act in their capacity as editors. It shall be the duty of the officers of the Society to provide the necessary arrangements for these members of the Editorial Committee and to assist them in their duties in every possible manner, in compliance with the engagements made with me bearing on this matter.

I have already donated to the WATCH TOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY all my voting shares therein, putting the same in the hands of five Trustees, as follows: Sr. E. Louise Hamilton Sr. Almeta M. Nation Robison, Sr. J. G. Herr, Sr. C. Tomlins, Sr. Alice G. James.

These Trustees shall serve for life. In event of deaths or resignations successors shall be chosen by the WATCH TOWER SOCIETY Directors and Editorial Committee and the remaining Trustees after prayer for Divine guidance.

I now provide for the impeachment and dismissal from the Editorial Committee of any member thereof found to be unworthy the position by reason of either doctrinal or moral laches, as follows:

At least three of the Board must unite in bringing the impeachment charges, and the Board of Judgment in the matter shall consist of the WATCH TOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY’S trustees and the five trustees controlling my voting shares and the Editorial Committee, excepting the accused. Of these sixteen members at least thirteen must favor the impeachment and dismissal in order to effect the same.

DIRECTIONS FOR FUNERAL
I desire to be buried in the plot of ground owned by our Society, in the Rosemont United Cemetery, and all the details of arrangements respecting the funeral service I leave in the care of my sister, Mrs. M. M. Land, and her daughters Alice and May, or such of them as may survive me, with the assistance and advice and cooperation of the brethren as they may request the same. Instead of an ordinary funeral discourse, I request that they arrange to have a number of the brethren, accustomed to public speaking, make a few remarks each, that the service be very simple and inexpensive and that it be conducted in the Bible House Chapel or any other place that may be considered equally appropriate or more so.

MY LEGACY OF LOVE
To the dear “Bethel” family collectively and individually I leave my best wishes, in hoping for them of the Lord His blessing, which maketh rich and addeth no sorrow. The same I extend in a still broader sweep to all the family of the Lord in every place—especially to those rejoicing in the Harvest Truth. I entreat you all that you continue to progress and to grow in grace, in knowledge, and above all in love, the great fruit of the Spirit in its various diversified forms. I exhort to meekness, not only with the world, but with one another; to patience with one another and with all men, to gentleness with all, to brotherly kindness, to godliness to purity. I remind you that all these things are necessary for us, necessary that we may attain the promised Kingdom, and that the Apostle has assured us that if we do these things we shall never fail, but that “so an entrance shall be ministered unto us abundantly into the everlasting Kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.”

It is my wish that this my last Will and Testament be published in the issue of THE WATCH TOWER following my death.

My hope for myself, as for all the dear Israel of God is that soon we shall meet to part no more, in the First Resurrection, in the Master’s presence, where there is fulness of joy forevermore. We shall be satisfied when we awake in His likeness—

“Changed from glory unto glory.” (Signed)
CHARLES TAZE RUSSELL.

PUBLISHED AND DECLARED IN THE PRESENCE OF THE WITNESSES WHOSE NAMES ARE ATTACHED:

MAE F. LAND M. ALMETA NATION LAURA M. WHITEHOUSE.

DONE AT ALLEGHENY, PA., JUNE TWENTY-NINE, NINETEEN HUNDRED AND SEVEN.

Appeared in Zion’s Watch Tower, VOL. XXXVII December 1 No. 23
A. D. 1916

Jehovah’s Witnesses are members of an international religious denomination who identify themselves as Christian and number over six million. Their headquarters are in New York, USA. It is an international organization known for its extensive preaching and publishing activities, with The Watchtower and Awake! religious magazines and the “New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures” being the most prominent examples.

• 1 Origins
• 2 Membership
• 3 Organizational structure
• 4 Beliefs and doctrines
  • 4.1 The question of blood
• 5 Practices
• 6 Jehovah’s Witnesses and governments
• 7 Opposition to Jehovah’s Witnesses
• 8 Jehovah’s Witnesses and eschatology
  • 8.1 Early eschatology
  • 8.2 1975
  • 8.3 Recent changes
• 9 Jehovah’s Witnesses and their families

Origins

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that some time after the death of the last apostle, the Church gradually diverged, in a “Great Apostasy”, from the original teachings of Jesus in several major points. Influenced by Restorationism, they believe their faith is a continually improving, imperfect restoration of First Century Christianity. An example in The Watchtower states: “It was the 1900-year-old ‘faithful and discreet slave,’ [parable--Matthew 24:45] the old Christian congregation, that was entrusted with this precious Kingdom service … obedient in its centuries-old commission to be witnesses in the earth … the matured ’slave’ as represented by a remnant now stood ready for new assignments of service.”(Watchtower 1960) They teach that this new assignment occurred in 1919 in fulfillment of scripture. Jehovah’s Witnesses feel that true understanding of the scriptures began to be reassembled by Charles Taze Russell and his associates when they formed a Bible study group in the 1870s in Allegheny, Pennsylvania, and had until then been imperfectly represented since the Great Apostasy by a number of historical Christian groups.

From their beginnings, the “Bible Students” as they were known, focused their evangelizing work on proclaiming that Christ’s Second Presence had begun invisibly in 1874. As part of the dawning of the Millennium, Christ was believed to have been enthroned as King in 1878, and the destruction of religious organizations and governments was expected by the year 1914, to be followed by the establishment of a world-wide paradise. Though their interpretation of prophetic dates has changed through the years, eschatology has remained a major focus. To this day, based on their understanding of Bible chronology, they believe that 1914 marked the beginning of the “End Times”, and that Armageddon is near, which drives the urgency in their preaching work.

Born into a Presbyterian family, Russell had nearly lost his faith until it was rekindled by contact with some Second Adventists (one of the spiritual heirs of the Millerites). Adventist ministers Jonas Wendell, George Storrs and George Stetson were early influences. In 1876 Russell met Nelson H. Barbour and subsequently adopted Barbour’s understanding of biblical chronology. Russell provided financial backing for Barbour and became co-editor of Barbour’s magazine Herald of the Morning. Breaking with Barbour in 1879 over the concept of substitutionary atonement, Russell soon began publishing his own magazine Zion’s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence. Known as “Pastor Russell”, he formed a legal entity which developed into the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania in 1881, and in 1884 it was incorporated with Russell as president. Over several years, many millions of copies of Zion’s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence were distributed in several languages to proclaim Christ’s presence and the dawn of his Millennium. In addition, his six-volume work, originally entitled Millennial Dawn but later changed to Studies in the Scriptures, established the fundamental doctrines derived from their Bible study. (As a consequence, the Bible Students were sometimes called “Millennial Dawnists”.) In 1914 Russell founded the International Bible Students Association in Great Britain.

Russell died in 1916, and in the following year, the movement was divided by schisms due to significant doctrinal changes. Those who rejected the changes in organization and doctrine became known as the Associated Bible Students, referring to themselves as simply “Bible Students” to this day. In 1918, a Bible Student convention was held independently of the Watchtower Society. At the second convention, a few months later, the Pastoral Bible Institute was founded and began publishing The Herald of Christ’s Kingdom. The magazine continues to be published today. By 1928 nearly 75% of Bible Students had fled from the changes in place by Pastor Russell´s successor.

In 1931, while Russell’s successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (often referred to as “Judge Rutherford”), was president of the Watch Tower Society, those who maintained their association with the Society adopted the name “Jehovah’s Witnesses”, based on Isaiah 43:10 which reads, in part: “‘You are my witnesses,’ is the utterance of Jehovah…” (New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures).

Under Rutherford, Jehovah’s Witnesses experienced rapid growth. Rutherford was known for bold rhetoric. In his preaching, he coined the phrase “Religion is a snare and a racket,” heavily denouncing the Catholic Church and Christendom generally, modern Judaism and national governments. Under his leadership, the Society developed a legal staff (which is utilized to this day), and battled successfully in US and Canadian courts to establish their rights to preach their religion. These legal battles resulted in significant improvements in freedom of speech and religion in the laws of both countries. (See, e.g., Cantwell v. State of Connecticut, Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette.)

Nathan Homer Knorr became president of the Watch Tower Society after Rutherford’s death in 1942. Known as an efficient administrator, Knorr emphasized ministerial training in the local congregations and also founded the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead for training missionaries. Knorr’s Vice-President Frederick William Franz became the chief theologian for the Witnesses and was credited as being the principal translator of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. Witness membership rose from 115,000 to over 2 million under Knorr’s leadership.

The leadership of Jehovah’s Witnesses was reorganized in 1975 and the power of the presidency passed on to the Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Subsequent presidents of the Watch Tower Society after Knorr’s death in 1977 have been Frederick William Franz, Milton George Henschel and Don A. Adams. However, doctrinal and organizational decisions since 1975 have been made by the Governing Body.

Membership

As of August 2005, Jehovah’s Witnesses have a practicing membership of more than 6.6 million, according to data reported in the Annual Worldwide Statistics at the Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah’s Witnesses. The site states: “While other religious groups count their membership by occasional or annual attendance, this figure reflects only those who are actively involved in the public Bible educational work.” Jehovah’s Witnesses have a custom of counting their membership by ‘Lands’ rather than by countries, indicating separate statistics for regions administered by other countries, such as Alaska, Hawaii, and Taiwan.

These statistics are based on the number of “active members”. To be classed as an active member (or publisher), an individual who has first been approved as a publisher must serve at least one hour per month in the preaching work, or 15 minutes per month for elderly members and those otherwise physically restricted. Figures for time spent per month are reported by each publisher and submitted monthly to the Society. In 2004, these reports indicated a total of 1.3 billion hours.

In the United States, an academic study at CUNY based on a telephone survey (American Religious Identification Survey) was conducted in 2001 and estimated there to be 1.331 million adults in the U.S. who self-identify as Jehovah’s Witnesses (U.S. Census Bureau 2003). Jehovah’s Witnesses report over 1 million active publishers in the United States, but because this includes minors, it is not directly comparable to the ARIS numbers. In 1990, a larger but less detailed telephone survey based study (NSRI) at CUNY reported 1.38 million adults in the U.S. who self-identified as Jehovah’s Witnesses. While this might indicate a slow decline in U.S. identification with the group, there was an increase in active U.S. publishers over this period. ARIS notes the survey did not cover non-English speakers and small groups with a high proportion of recent immigrant members were likely undercounted. Announced U.S. Witness convention schedules for 2005 include 75 non-English conventions of 227 total. Most increase in membership each year is due to an influx of non-English speaking individuals, with a rapid increase in foreign-language congregations being established throughout the country.

Jehovah’s Witnesses have a small active presence in most countries and are the second or third largest religious group in many countries with a dominant religion. In no country are they a large part of the population, however. Brazil and Mexico are the only countries other than the U.S. where the number of active Witness publishers exceeds 0.5 million. The highest proportion of Witnesses in a country of substantial size is in Zambia, where 1% are active Witness publishers. Growth in most developed countries is slow or negative in recent years but is offset by rapid growth in less developed lands, particularly the former Communist bloc and Latin America.

Jehovah’s Witnesses commemorate the Memorial of Christ’s death (also known as the Lord’s Evening Meal) annually. According to the February 1, 2006 Watchtower, worldwide attendance at the 2005 celebration of the Memorial was 16,383,333, slightly lower than the 2004 attendance of 16,760,607. This figure includes not only publishers, but inactive members, relatives, visitors and interested persons. In the U.S., 2.3 million people were present. In Zambia 570,000 attended, or 1 person for every 22 in the population. Of over 16 million in attendance worldwide, only 8,524 persons partook of the memorial emblems of unleavened bread and wine. These are those who profess to be anointed ones based on their interpretation of Revelation 14:1. (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society 2004a)

Organizational structure

Jehovah’s Witnesses are currently led by a small, ecclesiastical Governing Body. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe the role of the Governing Body corresponds to that of those who met in the Council of Jerusalem, guided by Holy Spirit and directed by Jesus. The description of the Council of Jerusalem in the Acts of the Apostles is often used as an example of how God had a “visible organization” in the first century. From this they reason that God therefore has an organization today. This top-down leadership is referred to by the Witnesses as “theocratic”.

All members of the Governing Body profess to be “anointed”. The number of men who make up the Governing Body has ranged from ten to seventeen. Since April 1975, the Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses makes decisions by a two-thirds majority vote; previously a unanimous vote was required. Therefore, no one member makes decisions nor asserts any more spiritual insight than any other member of the Governing Body. (Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pp. 45, 85, 163) The Governing Body (indirectly through the departments of its various legal organizations) directs the operation of the 111 branches spread throughout the world (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society 2005). Each branch has appointed overseers who travel among various local congregations, spending a week with each and giving spiritual encouragement through talks and one-on-one time spent with members in their public ministry. Within each local congregation, appointed elders organize the congregation’s public ministry, and the content and schedule of their five weekly meetings, based on publications and precedents set by the Governing Body. They also recommend, via a vote of the elder body, “spiritually mature” baptized male members of the congregation for the positions of elder or ministerial servant, requiring the approval of higher leadership.

Elders take the lead in congregational matters, particularly in religious instruction and spiritual counseling, whereas the ministerial servants assist elders in a limited administrative capacity, and they and other Witnesses ‘in good standing’ often perform the majority of operational tasks for congregation meetings.

Witnesses do not consider elders to be clergy, though their service includes pastoral activity that clergy provide in other Christian denominations. All baptized Witnesses are considered to be ordained ministers, and are obligated to provide religious instruction to others. Spiritually mature Witnesses (men and women alike) are exhorted to the counseling of less-mature Witnesses. They may be assigned a newer publisher to assist in ministry, and may be asked to conduct a personal Bible study with another Witness who is spiritually troubled or “weak”. Males are encouraged to reach out for ‘privileges of service’ such as becoming elders. Elders are said to be worthy of “double honor”, but are held to a higher standard as overseers than other baptized “publishers”, and are subject to additional discipline including removal. An elder may also be removed, or choose to step down willingly, from his position if members of his household are not in “good standing”.

About 8,500 other Jehovah’s Witnesses profess to be anointed but they have no formal role in establishment or modification of the doctrines of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Unless appointed into one of the various roles described above, they have no position of leadership or authority. Women who profess to be anointed cannot attain any position of earthly authority; Witnesses do believe that all anointed, including many women, will be resurrected to heaven to serve as ‘kings and priests’ over other creatures provided they die faithful. They believe that the resurrection of the anointed began in the Spring of 1918 and each member of the anointed who dies since then is resurrected to spirit life in the heavens immediately upon their death.

Beliefs and doctrines

Jehovah’s Witnesses claim reliance on the Bible for their theology, and the scriptures noted below are commonly used by Witnesses and their organization as the basis for their claims of a biblical foundation for their doctrines. Many beliefs and practices are similar to mainstream Christian denominations, yet there are significant differences as well.

Beliefs and practices that can be said to be distinctive of Jehovah’s Witnesses include:

• Prominent use of the biblical name of God as translated into native languages, for example: Jehovah in English, Geova in Italian, etc. (based on Psalm 83:18)
• Jesus is a created being and God’s first creation, not the uncreated second person of the Trinity; Jesus was used by God to create every other creation (based on Colossians 1:15; Proverbs 8:30; Revelation 3:14)
• Jesus was known as the Archangel Michael in his pre-human existence; his birth on earth was accomplished when God transferred Michael’s life force from heaven to the womb of the virgin Mary (based on Daniel 12:1; John 1:14, 18, 34)
• The Holy Spirit is God’s ‘active force’, not the uncreated third person of the Trinity (based on Acts 2:1-4)
• Preaching from “house to house” (based on Acts 5:42; 20:20, 21)
• Only Jehovah’s Witnesses can correctly be called true Christians (Watchtower December 1, 1992 pp. 16-17 paragraphs 18-22; The Road to Everlasting Life—Have You Found It? Part 7 “Who Practice the True Religion?”)
• Deceased redeemable individuals are “asleep in death” awaiting the “resurrection of both the righteous and the unrighteous” (based on Acts 24:15)
• The number of Christians going to heaven is limited to precisely 144,000 where they will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over Earth (based on Revelation 7:4-8; 14:1-4; 20:6)
• Jesus is mediator for those in the ‘new covenant’ (the 144,000) (based on Hebrews 8:6); no one comes to the Father except though Jesus. (based on John 14:6)
• Teaching authority is only possessed by a ‘Governing Body’ (currently comprised of 12 men) who have the equivalent of magisterium regarding interpretation of the Bible, also referred to as the Faithful and Discreet Slave (based on Acts 2:41, 42; 15:1-31; 16:4, 5)
• The Greek Scriptures are directed primarily to the 144,000, (though the principles apply to all members) (United In Worship of the Only True God; 1983, p. 111)
• The Temple of Jerusalem was destroyed in 607 BC, rather than the historically accepted date of 587/586 BC, based on the belief that 70 years transpired from destruction of Jerusalem to return of captives from Babylon (based on Jer. 29:10, Dan. 9:2)
• The “seven times” of Daniel 4:10-17 are interpreted as a 2,520 year period from 607 BC to 1914 AD, referred to as the “Gentile Times” (based on Luke 21:24)
• Jesus’ invisible enthronement as King of Heaven in 1914 was followed by an inspection period of all Christian Churches, and Jehovah’s Witnesses were chosen by Jesus in 1919 as the only true Christian organization (based on Revelation 18:2-5; Watchtower May 1, 1993 p. 16, 17 paragraphs 4-8)
• In 1918 Jesus resurrected those of the 144,000 (the “anointed”) who had already died to heavenly life; since 1918, any “anointed” are individually resurrected to heavenly life at the time of their death (based on Revelation 6:11, 14:13; Revelation–It’s Grand Climax At Hand!, page 102)
• A “Great Crowd” of Jehovah’s Witnesses is now living that will survive the coming battle of Armageddon and have the prospect of living forever in an earthly paradise (based on Revelation 7:9-17)
• Celebration of the Lord’s Supper is held once a year after sundown on the date corresponding to Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar; only those claiming to be of the “remnant” of the 144,000 with the heavenly hope partake of the unleavened bread and wine (those with the earthly hope attend but do not partake)”The only flesh saved” at Armageddon will be faithful Jehovah’s Witnesses—these being just the “anointed” and the “great crowd”, according to the vast majority of the Governing Body’s approved publications through the Watch Tower Society. (Watchtower magazines 15 November 1983, p.24; 15 June 1999, p.6; Live Forever book, p.255) A few other Witness publications do not comment either way about individuals at Armageddon who are uninformed of Jehovah’s Witnesses’ message. These publications leave the fate of these people in “God’s hands”; whether or not they might be spared destruction is left inconclusive in those publications. (Watchtower magazines 1976, pp.347–8; 15 August 1998, p.20; Reasoning book, p.48
• An unknown number of dead people will be resurrected after Armageddon, with the prospect of living forever in an earthly paradise, but those who have already been judged by God will not (such as any killed at Armageddon) (based on John 5:28,29; John 11:25; Acts 24:15)
• After Armageddon, Christ will rule for a thousand years, during which the Earth will be transformed into a paradise, while Satan is abyssed and unable to influence mankind (Revelation 20:1-3); at the end of this time, Satan will be released, and the final judgment will take place during which Satan and all those corrupted by him will be destroyed forever, and evil will never again occur (based on Revelation 20:7-10; Revelation 21:1-4)
• Jesus was executed on a single beamed torture stake, not on a two beamed cross (based on Acts 5:30 and interpretation of the Greek word stauros)
• “Abstaining from blood”, most notably characterized by the refusal of whole blood transfusions or any of the primary components of blood (plasma, platelets, white blood cells, and red blood cells) (based on Acts 15:20, 29; Genesis 9:4); taking of any derivatives of blood is left to the conscience (no supporting biblical text); belief that the only proper use of blood can be decided by God only; that sacred use pertained to the washing of sins by Christ’s blood as he died on earth
• God has a visible organization, and it represents the only one true religion (based on Matthew 7:13, 14; Ephesians 4:4-6)
• Neutrality in secular politics and refusal to take part in elections (based on Matthew 26:52; John 17:16)
• Not celebrating common religious or national holidays such as Thanksgiving and Christmas (based on Galatians 4:8-11)
• Not celebrating birthdays (based on Genesis 40:20-22; Mark 6:19-27)
• The annihilation of the unsaved (cessation of existence) as opposed to damnation of the unsaved (eternal existence in hell) (based on John 3:16, 36)
• The current time is the “Last Days” or “End Times” soon to end (based on Isaiah 2:2-4; 2 Timothy 3:1-5, 13)
• Prayer to the Father Jehovah only but in the name of the Son, recognizing Jehovah God as the most high, and that Jesus gave his life for all (based on Matthew 6:9; John 14:6, 13)
• All members are expected to abide by the doctrines and unique organizational requirements as determined by the Governing Body. (based on Watchtower 1 April 1986 pp.30-31) Unapologetic and/or continuous breaking of these organizational rules can result in disfellowshipping (being excommunicated) and shunning.
• Baptized Jehovah’s Witnesses who unapologetically disagree with organizational doctrine are labeled apostate and disfellowshipped (based on letter from Watchtower Societydated 1 Sept. 1980)
• All Jehovah’s Witnesses are expected to shun individuals who are either disfellowshipped, or disassociated (those who leave voluntarily) (based on 1 Corinthians 5:11-13)

Beliefs similar to those of most Christians include:

• Worship of the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (based on Matthew 4:10)
• The Hebrew Scriptures tell the history of the people of Israel as the beneficiaries of God’s covenant and recipients of His Law, and prophesy the coming of Jesus Christ (based on Romans 3:2; 9:1-6)
• Jesus died to atone for the sins of humankind (based on Matthew 20:28)
• Salvation is by faith and undeserved kindness (grace) of God which compels the Christian to works; works are evidence of faith and cannot gain salvation (based on John 3:16, 36; James 2:14-26; Matthew 7:15-23; Ephesians 2:8-10)
• All are sinners (based on Romans 3:23)

Beliefs similar to those of many Christians include:

• Abortion is murder (based on Exodus 21:22, 23; Psalm 127:3)
• Premarital sexual relations are sinful (based on 1 Corinthians 6:9-11,18)
• Homosexual acts are sinful (based on Leviticus 18:22; Romans 1:26,27; 1 Corinthians 6:9)
• Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that their religion is the only true one Reasoning from the Scriptures p. 203)
• Rejection of evolution (based on Genesis 1:11, 12)
• Women cannot be “teachers” in the congregation (based on 1 Timothy 2:12, 13); though female Witnesses do participate in meeting programs they do not serve in a “teaching” role or one of oversight

Beliefs similar to those of most conservative Christians include:

• inerrancy of the Bible, with a literal interpretation of the Bible, although believing that Bible writers and characters employed symbology, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism (based on John 17:17; 2 Timothy 3:16, 17)
• Wives should be submissive to their husbands; husbands are to have deep respect and love for their wives; the husband is the head of the family (based on 1 Corinthians 11:3)

Beliefs similar to those of some other Christians include:

• Belief that the soul is mortal, and that death is a state of non-existence (based on Ezekiel 18:4)
• Hades or Sheol is not a place of fiery torment, but rather the common grave of mankind, in which they are “conscious of nothing” (based on Revelation 20:13,14, Ecclesiastes 9:5,10)
• Refusal of military service (based on Isaiah 2:2-4; Matthew 26:52; cf. the Peace churches and Quakers)

Beliefs similar to main Protestant teachings include:

• Rejection of transubstantiation and consubstantiation (of the Eucharist) (based on John 6:35, 40; 53, 63; 15:1; 1 Corinthians 11:25)
• Rejection of veneration of Mary, the saints, or the cross; such is viewed as idolatry and detracting from the worship of God
• Mary was not ever-virgin, but rather bore more children after Jesus (based on Matthew 13:56 and Mark 6:3-4)

Jehovah’s Witnesses and Philosophy Jehovah’s Witnesses have had several views of philosophy. The authors of the book Reasoning from the Scriptures state that “they do not resort to philosophical arguments to evade [the bible's] clear statements of truth.” (Reasoning from the Scriptures p. 204). Yet, in the book Is There a Creator Who Cares about You? the authors explicate several well known philosophical proofs for the existence of God. (See Is There a Creator Who Cares about You? pp. 17, 25, 78). The authors use the Fine-Tuning argument, the Teleological argument, and the Kalam Cosmological argument to support belief in God.

The question of blood

Jehovah’s Witnesses reject whole allogeneic blood transfusions.(Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society 2004b) This is based on their understanding of the biblical admonition to “keep abstaining from blood” (based on Acts 15:28, 29). Prior to 2000, the storage and use of human and animal blood products, and the commercial use of blood products were condemned as unscriptural. (Watchtower 1 February 1997 p.30)

Although Jehovah’s Witnesses do not accept transfusions of whole blood, and despite not donating blood (as they believe it must not be stored), they may according to the conscience of the particular individual, accept derivatives of blood, or even whole autologous blood so long as it is part of a “current therapy”, such as normovolemic hemodilution, a treatment that processes the individual’s own blood in a closed loop that does not interrupt the flow of blood, delivering it immediately back into the person’s body. Also left to conscience are procedures where a “quantity of blood is withdrawn in order to tag it or to mix it with medicine, whereupon it is put back into the patient.” (15 October 2000 Watchtower, p. 31)

The Witnesses’ Medical Care and Blood policy changed fundamentally in the year 2000 and now accepts derivatives such as Hemopure, which consists of chemically stabilized bovine hemoglobin (derived from cows’ blood) and PolyHeme (chemically modified hemoglobin derived from human blood). The Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia, PA, provides a detailed list of these specific distinctions. Witnesses interpret the prohibited use of blood to be limited to whole allogeneic blood (or any of its four main components), or stored autologous blood. Transfusion of whole autologous blood that is part of a “current therapy” and/or sufficiently fractionated constituents from donated and stored allogeneic blood are considered a “gray area” not specifically condemned and therefore permissable. (15 June 2000 Watchtower, pp. 29-31)

Many Jehovah’s Witnesses carry carefully prepared durable power of attorney documents indicating that they will accept all fractions derived from blood. The wording of this option reads, “I accept all fractions derived from any primary component of blood.” (2003 Guide to Our Three Health Care Documents, p. 11) The conscience of some Witnesses still does not permit the use of fractions derived from blood and these will use non-blood alternatives with varying degrees of success.

The refusal of blood transfusions is a significant issue among medical professionals and others concerning Jehovah’s Witnesses, especially when it involves minor children and more so in view of the fact that children of Jehovah’s Witnesses have died as a consequence. In some countries, laws may impose limitations on physicians on the ability to withhold or withdraw blood transfusions or blood therapy from minors, particularly in life-threatening situations; parents who have prevented children under their care from receiving blood therapy in life-threatening situations may face prosecution. Courts have ordered transfusions for some children, often the very young; in other cases they have respected the declared choice of an under-age minor who is able to defend his or her own beliefs to the court in a manner that reflects a mature understanding and without undue influence from the parents.

Pursuit of medical alternatives to blood transfusion in cases involving Jehovah’s Witness patients, including the use of erythropoietin to boost the red blood cell count, has afforded opportunities for medical advancement in the field of bloodless surgery.(Awake! 1996)

A peer-reviewed essay entitled, “Jehovah’s Witnesses, Blood Transfusions, and the Tort of Misrepresentation,” found in the Autumn issue of Baylor University’s Journal of Church and State, published December 13, 2005, discusses the potential vulnerability of Jehovah’s Witnesses’ legal corporations to significant claims for compensation because of the religion’s possible misrepresentation of the medical risks of blood transfusions.

Practices

Jehovah’s Witnesses have five meetings per week, which are made up of five program parts (totaling approximately five hours). Meetings are held in local Kingdom Halls and private homes. Larger conventions are held usually three times a year in facilities owned or maintained by the Watchtower Society or rented, such as stadiums or auditoriums. Throughout the week, there are also meetings for “field service” (preaching work) where members meet either in homes, or the Kingdom Hall, to organize and pray prior to engaging in door-to-door or other forms of evangelism. On a daily basis, Jehovah’s Witnesses are encouraged to meditate on spiritual matters, often by aids such as Examining the Scriptures Daily, a booklet with a scripture from the Bible and commentary usually based on a Watchtower article. Before meals, Jehovah’s Witnesses commonly say a prayer, either silently when alone or aloud when at a gathering.

Aside from their worship practices, Jehovah’s Witnesses are identifiable by things from which they abstain. There is a general avoidance of practices considered to have nationalistic or “false religious” roots. These can be such things as singing the national anthem at sporting events, or not saying “bless you” when someone sneezes. They avoid celebrations of birthdays and holidays. Their only officially mandated celebration is the “Memorial of Christ’s Death.” Weddings, anniversaries, and memorials at death are also optionally observed. Adhering to these standards of behavior, Jehovah’s Witnesses believe themselves to be faithful even in the seemingly small things (see Luke 16:10). The use of distinctive titles in address (such as Father, Pastor, Elder, Reverend, etc. among other groups) is strictly avoided (Matthew 23:6-12). All Witnesses, irrespective of privileges of service, address one another as “Brother” or “Sister”, often followed by the first or last name of the individual. There are categories of privileges of service (Pioneer, Elder, Presiding Overseer, and so on) which may be used to refer to an individual in reference to those duties (”John is an elder”), but never as a title or to address him or her (”elder John”).

Their view of sexual behavior reflects conservative Christian views, such as pre-marital sex and homosexual acts as being violations of God’s law. “Modesty” is heavily encouraged in daily dress, especially at spiritual events, where standards of dress are more formal, varying by country and regional custom (In the U.S., Europe, and most of Asia, this typically consists of formal western business attire). In addition, entertainment with sexual, materialistic, spiritualistic or violent subject matter is strongly discouraged. Further, though they are nonconformists in some ways, they seek not to appear to be “counter-cultural.” They avoid presenting an image that might appear unkempt or unprofessional according to local culture and societal norms. Therefore, in certain areas, styles or attributes such as beards, long hair or earrings for men, or any dress or grooming for both men and women that is defined by them to appear “rebellious” or “immodest” are seriously discouraged, even outside of spiritual activities. A person violating these standards would risk providing a “bad witness,” and would fail to mark him or herself as different from the secular and “false religious” world. This is in keeping with their interpretation of the scriptural admonition at 2 Timothy 2:9,10 (NWT), “Likewise I desire the women to adorn themselves in well-arranged dress, with modesty and soundness of mind, not with styles of hair braiding and gold or pearls or very expensive garb, but in the way that befits women professing to reverence God, namely, through good works.” Jehovah’s Witnesses consider this admonition to apply, in principle, equally to men and to women.

Jehovah’s Witnesses are known in many lands for their building work. International and regional building teams frequently undertake so-called “quick builds,” construction of Kingdom Halls over the course of one or two weekends. Larger construction projects, including the building of regional Assembly Halls and Bethel offices, factories, residences, warehouses, and farm facilities, are also carried out almost entirely by volunteer members.

The Witnesses are noted for their racial and ethnic integration. In the United States an academic study (ARIS 2001) by CUNY put the proportion of blacks among adults who self-identified as Witnesses at 37% (the highest proportion among any of the 22 largest religious identifications which make up 90% of the U.S. population). Congregations are generally organized geographically, and members are encouraged to attend the Kingdom Hall in whose territory they reside, resulting in an ethnic mix generally representative of local population. Anecdotal accounts of Witness outreach across racial lines are a common subject matter for the annual Yearbook of Jehovah’s Witnesses. A notable example is the account of relief efforts to both Hutu and Tutsi Witnesses and non-Witnesses during the genocide in Rwanda and to Congo refugees. “Since 1994, Jehovah’s Witnesses in Europe alone have sent more than 190 tons of food, clothing, medicine, and other relief supplies to the Great Lakes region of Africa.” This humanitarian aid was not given exclusively to Jehovah’s Witnesses. Others also benefited. For instance, the Witnesses distributed medicine and clothing to several primary schools and an orphanage near Goma.(Watchtower 1998a)

Jehovah’s Witnesses and governments

Jehovah’s Witnesses exhort their members to obey all the laws, including the paying of taxes, of the country in which they reside, so long as these do not violate ‘God’s law’. This is in keeping with their interpretation of Romans 13:7:

Render to all their dues, to him who calls for the tax, the tax; to him who calls for the tribute, the tribute; to him who calls for fear, such fear; to him who calls for honor, such honor.

At the same time, however, they hold a stance of political neutrality. Examples of this detachment in practice include:

• Refusal to salute the flag, or sing nationalistic songs
• Refusal to serve in the military (including defense, or non-combatant roles)
• Refusal to participate in political processes including democratic ones: voting in government elections, while termed a ‘conscience decision’ for legal reasons, constitutes an act of disassociation, as does military service. (Watchtower 1 November 1999 pp.28-9)
• Refusal to hold political office

One area in which Jehovah’s Witnesses have influenced public policy is civil rights. The Watch Tower Society from the days of Joseph Franklin Rutherford has utilized the court systems of various countries to defend religious freedoms. In addition, they have occasionally organized letter-writing campaigns to protest “persecutions”, most famously those addressed to Adolf Hitler during the second world war and certain African nations during the 1970s. (See the publication Defending and Legally Establishing the Good News for examples.)

According to the book Judging Jehovah’s Witnesses (Shawn Francis Peters, University Press of Kansas: 2000), the Witnesses have helped to widen the definition of civil liberties in most western societies, hence broadening the rights of millions of people, due to their firm stand and determination. According to the preface to the book State and Salvation (William Kaplan, University of Toronto Press: 1989): “One of the results of the Witnesses’ legal battles was the long process of discussion and debate that led to the Charter of Rights, which is now part of the fundamental law of Canada. Other battles in countries around the world have involved the rights to decline military service or martial arts training, to decline to participate in political parties or governmental elections, to exercise free and anonymous speech, to exercise freedom of association, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, medical self-determination, etc. Witnesses continue to, in their words, ‘defend and legally establish the Good News’ around the world.”

Jehovah’s Witnesses endured intense persecution under the Nazi regime from 1933 to 1945, both as a religious group and individually. Unlike Jews, Sinti and Roma (”Gypsies”), persecuted and killed by virtue of their culture, Jehovah’s Witnesses had the opportunity to escape persecution and personal harm by renouncing their religious beliefs. The courage the vast majority displayed in refusing to do so, in the face of torture, maltreatment in concentration camps, and sometimes execution, won them the respect of many contemporaries. These events are recounted in a documentary (available through the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society) called: PURPLE TRIANGLES. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

Regarding the intensity and argumentation used by Jehovah’s Witnesses as an organization in defending their claimed basic “legal rights, Human Rights, and Freedoms of Speech” within the nations in which they have a presence, some criticism has been expressed regarding the internal organizational practices and their effects on the same Human Rights and basic freedoms of individual members. Citing a Witness publication, the contention is that divergent views expressed, or even just thoughts rejecting non-scholarly organizational doctrines by baptized members, will result in disfellowshipping (excommunication), or strong threats thereof on the grounds of “apostasy” with accompanying removal of congregational privileges, communication with family and friends, and respected name and reputation: “Persons who deliberately spread (stubbornly hold to and speak about) teachings contrary to Bible truth as taught by Jehovah’s Witnesses are apostates.” (Pay Attention to Yourselves and to All the Flock p. 94 Apostasy). Also, “Keep in mind that to be disfellowshipped, an apostate does not have to be a promoter of apostate views. . . Therefore, if a baptized Christian abandons the teachings of Jehovah, as presented by the faithful and discreet slave [Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses], and persists in believing other doctrines, . . .then he is apostatizing. . . if he continues to believe the apostate ideas and rejects what has been provided through the ’slave class’ [Governing Body] then appropriate judicial action should be taken.”—letter to all Circuit and District overseers, 1 September 1980. This is seen by some critics as a major restriction of the basic humans rights and freedoms of speech and thought of the members — rights which the organization demands in its legal battles with some governments of the world — as well as indicative of a severe mind- and speech-controlling policy directly contradicting scriptural precedents. They criticize the organization’s pursuit of its rights before governments as hypocritical because they see the organization violating those same rights when dealing with members. The organization sees this as a perfectly reasonable private internal matter by itself and its followers, and states its right to excommunicate members.

Opposition to Jehovah’s Witnesses

Throughout their history, their beliefs, doctrines and practices have met controversy and opposition from governments, communities, and religious groups. Many Christian denominations consider the interpretation and doctrines of Jehovah’s Witnesses to be heresy. In addition, governments of various political persuasions have considered the religion to be a subversive organization, and sometimes even a threat to national security.

Political and religious animosity against them has at times led to mob action and government oppression.

On the milder side, there have been opposition by locals to the building of facilities (such as Kingdom Halls), and the holding of large conventions. In those circumstances, at times the reason is opposition to the religion, but at other times, they are more mundane, such as concerns about traffic congestion and noise. In some legal cases, (such as Congrégation des témoins de Jéhovah de St-Jérôme-Lafontaine v. Lafontaine (Village)), disputes that have actually been about appropriate land use have been claimed by the Witnesses to be a violation of their religious freedoms.

Jehovah’s Witnesses and eschatology

Since their formation in the 1870s, leaders of the organization have sought to identify dates for end-time events such as the enthronement of Jesus as King, the return of Jesus Christ, and for the “end of this system of things,” culminating in Armageddon. The Witness publication Jehovah’s Witnesses–Proclaimers of God’s Kingdom, gives an overview of some of the historical development of the Witnesses’ eschatology. However, no detailed study by Witness historians has been published. Most information on Jehovah’s Witnesses’ eschatology has been produced by non-Witnesses citing Watch Tower publications. Responding to the charge of being “false prophets,” the Watchtower Society has defended failed predictions, and eschatology changes, as incorrect interpretations of the Bible and views it as evidence that they have been “keeping on the watch” for the “Day of Jehovah.” The Witnesses still rely on their understanding of Bible chronology for establishing the year of Christ’s return. While they look to modern events as corresponding to Biblical prophecies and feel Armageddon is imminent, they no longer predict a specific year for it.

Early eschatology

The Second Adventists affiliated with Nelson H. Barbour expected a visible and dramatic return of Christ in 1873, and later in 1874. They agreed with other Adventist groups that the “time of the end” (also called the “last days”) had started in 1799. Soon after the 1874 disappointment, Barbour accepted the idea that Christ had actually returned to the earth in 1874, but invisibly. 1874 was considered the end of 6,000 years of human history and the beginning of judgment by Christ. Charles Taze Russell and the group that later was known as Bible Students accepted these views from Barbour. Russell taught that while Jesus was invisibly present here on earth, he was made its King in 1878. Russell also taught that in 1878 Christ resurrected all the “dead in Christ” as spirit beings to be with him here on the earth awaiting a future glorification. (As each of the remainder of the 144,000 would die after 1878, Christ would resurrect them as spirit beings to join those already resurrected.) Together with Christ here on earth, these invisible resurrected spirit beings were engaged in directing a harvest work gathering the remainder of those with the heavenly calling. This harvest would run from 1874–1914, and the culmination of Armageddon would occur in 1914 preceded by the gathering of all the saints (both resurrected and living) to heaven notes C1. From 1925–1933, the Watchtower Society radically changed their beliefs after the failure of expectations for Armageddon in 1914, 1915, 1918, 1920, and 1925. In 1925, the Watchtower explained a major change that Christ had now been enthroned as King in heaven in the year 1914 instead of 1878. 1874 was retained as the time of Christ’s invisible return until the early 1930s. But, Christ’s Second Advent was now explained not as a return to the earth but as a “turning of attention” to the earth with Christ remaining in heaven. By 1933, it was clearly taught that Christ had returned invisibly in 1914 and the “last days” had also begun then. The 1878 resurrection date was transferred to 1918 but it was now held these were raised as spirit creatures to heavenly life to be with Christ there. These are the current teachings of Jehovah’s Witnesses regarding 1914 and 1918. Witnesses no longer consider the dates 1799, 1874 and 1878 of any significance today, even though they were foundation doctrines in their time. The idea that the “great tribulation” had begun in 1914 and was “cut short” in 1918 to be resumed at Armageddon was dropped in 1969, though Armageddon is still considered to be “very close”.

Other dates proclaimed to be time of God’s judgment on humankind and the culmination of Armageddon, were 1915, 1918, 1920, 1925 and 1941. The return of Old Testament men including Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob was an event anticipated by many Jehovah’s Witnesses in 1925 based on writings in their journal, The Watchtower, the book Millions Now Living Will Never Die C2, and various other Watch Tower Society publications. In 1929, Joseph Rutherford (the second president of the Watch Tower) built a luxury villa in California called Beth Sarim for the purpose of housing ancient Biblical persons, who were expected to be physically resurrected on earth to join Christ’s reign over the earth, even though they had failed to materialize as he had predicted for 1925. Rutherford lived in the villa until his death in 1942, and in 1948 the villa was sold. notes C3

Throughout its history the Watch Tower Society’s claims authority as “God’s Prophet”, and “God’s one and only true channel to mankind” has been historically reinforced into the minds of Jehovah’s Witnesses throughout the history of the organization. Its dates for Armageddon were repeatedly classed as “of God,”, “God’s time to act against mankind”, “God’s interpretations,” and the organization describes itself in a unique and privileged position of “God’s one sole channel to Mankind” in giving these dates. To questions the dates validity is often negatively inferred to be questioning God Himself. The organization has at times denied being “directly inspired”, but has also made multiple claims equaling inspiration in their import. These historical dates were never suggested to be the thoughts of imperfect men, or passing theories of men at the time of their publishing. This is demonstrated clearly in two out of many issues of the Watchtower magazine published by Jehovah’s Witnesses: “It is on the basis of such and so many correspondences-in accordance with the soundest laws known to science that we affirm that, Scripturally, scientifically, and historically, present-truth chronology is correct beyond a doubt. Its reliability has been abundantly confirmed by the dates and events of 1874, 1914, and 1918. Present-truth chronology is a secure basis on which the consecrated child of God may endeavor to search out things to come.” (Watchtower, 15 June 1922, p. 187.) “This chronology is not of man, but of God. Being of divine origin and divinely corroborated, present-truth chronology stands in a class by itself, absolutely and unqualifiedly correct.”—Watchtower, 15 July 1922, p. 217.

1975

During the 1960s and early 1970s, many Witnesses were stimulated by articles in their literature C4 and further encouraged by speakers at their assemblies prior to 1975, to believe that Armageddon and Christ’s thousand-year millennial reign would begin by 1975. Although the views of Armageddon and Christ’s millennium beginning in 1975 were never fully or explicitly supported by the Watch Tower Society, many in the organizations’ writing department, as well as several leading Witnesses, Elders, and presiding overseers in the organization, heavily suggested that Christ’s millennial reign over earth would begin by 1975. One outstanding example is an audio of a lecture by then Vice-President Fred Franz in early 1975 pin-pointing after sundown on September 5, 1975 as the end of 6,000 years and saying all the prophecies “could happen” by then, while admitting that looked improbable. While Witnesses have always been encouraged to increase the preaching work, and avoid secular life goals or careers, this emphasis was especially strong prior to 1975.

Some Witnesses gave up good jobs, notes C5 college, scholarships, and some imprudently sold their houses in the hopeful expectation that God’s Kingdom would literally be established on earth in 1975 after the biblical Armageddon, encouraged by the Watch Tower Society: “Reports are heard of brothers selling their homes and property and planning to finish out the rest of their days in this old system in the pioneer service. Certainly this is a fine way to spend the short time remaining before the wicked world’s end.-1 John 2:17.” notes C6 It is worth noting that similar language persists in publications of Jehovah’s Witnesses, who still hold that the time remaining in the present system is relatively short, and that having an active share in the preaching work is the best use of a believer’s time. Some Jehovah’s Witnesses irresponsibly ran up debt believing they would not to have to pay it back, and some unwisely spent their life savings believing that the 1975 date was a certain and unchangeable fact due to the many encouraging Watch Tower articles. C7 In spite of the Watch Tower Society’s previous admonition that Witnesses should let nothing cause them to tire and give out (Watchtower, 15 August 1968, p. 501), there were many who left the organization (or became inactive) due to the disappointment of Armageddon not coming in 1975, although the majority remained. The large numbers leaving or becoming inactive were seen as baptisms continued at over 100,000 per year (around 200,000 in 1976). However, the organization still continued to lose more members than it gained for several years after 1975, until 1979 when numbers started to recover and increase again.

In 1980, the Society acknowledged some responsibility of the 1975 incident. “With the appearance of the book Life Everlasting-in Freedom of the Sons of God, and its comments as to how appropriate it would be for the millennial reign of Christ to parallel the seventh millennium of man’s existence, considerable expectation was aroused regarding the year 1975. There were statements made then, and thereafter, stressing that this was only a possibility. Unfortunately, however, along with such cautionary information, there were other statements published that implied that such realization of hopes by that year was more of a probability than a mere possibility. It is to be regretted that these latter statements apparently overshadowed the cautionary ones and contributed to a build up of the expectation already initiated.” — The Watchtower magazine, 15 March 1980 p.17

Recent changes

In 1995 changes regarding their understanding of the statement “this generation” made by Jesus were published. During the previous four decades, Jehovah’s Witnesses had taught that Jesus was referring to the generation living in 1914, which would not die before Armageddon came. “Those persons yet remaining of that generation are now very old. However, some of them will still be alive to see the end of this wicked system.” (You Can Live Forever In Paradise On Earth, published 1982, rev. 1989, p154).

Previously, the proper interpretation of the word “generation” itself was believed to be “beyond question, that which takes a ‘generation’ in the ordinary sense…or for those who are living at the given period.” The belief was that “from 1914 a generation shall not pass till all is fulfilled, and amidst a great time of trouble.”^[a]

As the generation of 1914 dwindled in numbers, the Society used this for many decades as evidence that the end was “very near and immediately impending.” This doctrine was discarded when the youngest had reached 80 years of age. A “new light” interpretation of “this generation” was then published in The Watchtower magazine of 1 November 1995.(Watchtower 1995a)

The Witnesses’ current teaching regarding the meaning of the term “this generation” is that “in the final fulfillment of Jesus’ prophecy today, ‘this generation’ apparently refers to the peoples of earth who see the sign of Christ’s presence but fail to mend their ways.”(Watchtower 1995b) Jehovah’s Witnesses still believe that Armageddon is imminent. That same article continued, “Does our more precise viewpoint on ‘this generation’ mean that Armageddon is further away than we had thought? Not at all! Though we at no time have known the ‘day and hour,’ Jehovah God has always known it, and he does not change. (Malachi 3:6) … The need to keep awake is more critical than it has ever been. Jehovah has revealed to us ‘the things that must shortly take place,’ and we should respond with an absorbing sense of urgency.”

At the same time, the Watch Tower Society changed part of the wording of the stated purpose of the Awake! magazine from “the Creator’s promise of a peaceful and secure new world before the generation that saw the events of 1914 passes away” to “the Creator’s promise of a peaceful and secure new world that is about to replace the present, wicked lawless system of things.”

The Witnesses’ viewpoint of the “end of the world” differs from other apocalyptic religions. They do not believe that the physical earth will be destroyed, but rather that both the wicked and unbelievers will be eternally destroyed along with all “worldly” institutions (governments, non-Witness religions, etc.) It is their belief that the earth will be restored to an Eden-like paradise with Jehovah as sovereign and Jesus Christ as King designate.

Jehovah’s Witnesses and their families

Being one of Jehovah’s Witnesses and having other family members who are not can create strained relationships. When holidays come around (e.g. Christmas, Easter, Birthdays), some Witnesses may feel attendance or participation in holiday parties or gatherings violates their conscience, whether or not other, non-Witness family members choose to attend. It is because of this that many non-Witness family members of Jehovah’s Witnesses feel they are being shunned or that their Witness family members are ‘not allowed’ to be around them at all. This is, for the most part untrue, even though some Witnesses have cut off ties with ‘non-believing’ family members. Association with family members who are not Witnesses is not discouraged to the same extent as with non-relatives, as Witnesses believe they still have responsibilities to their respective families.

In families where all are Jehovah’s Witnesses, shunning of a disfellowshipped family member sometimes occurs. The September 15, 1981 Watchtower explains how disfellowshipping impacts family relationships. “The fact is that when a Christian gives himself over to sin and has to be disfellowshipped, he forfeits much: his approved standing with God;….sweet fellowship with the brothers, including much of the association he had with Christian relatives.” (page 31) Those who voluntarily disassociate or resign from Jehovah’s Witnesses similarly forfeit much of the association they have with their Witness relatives. If a relative who is disfellowshipped lives in the same household with Jehovah’s Witnesses, this means the Witness family members will minimize spiritual contact. Day to day activities may be affected, including eating meals at the same table. The August 2002 Our Kingdom Ministry, page 3 explains: “Thus, it would be left to members of the family to decide on the extent to which the disfellowshipped family member would be included when eating or engaging in other household activities. And yet, they would not want to give brothers with whom they associate the impression that everything is the same as it was before the disfellowshipping occurred.”

Regarding contact with a disfellowshipped relative living outside the home, a 1988 Watchtower counseled: “It might be possible to have almost no contact at all with the relative. Even if there were some family matters requiring contact, this certainly would be kept to a minimum.” (April 15, 1988, p. 28) “Hence, we also avoid social fellowship with an expelled person. This would rule out joining him in a picnic, party, or trip to the shops or theater or sitting down to a meal with him either in the home or at a restaurant.” (Our Kingdom Ministry, August 2002, page 4.)

Witnesses feel that disfellowshipping and shunning can have the beneficial effect of restoring an errant former member to the religion. Critics feel that this policy holds some people captive who might otherwise leave the religion but are afraid of facing shunning from their Witness relatives. The psychological impact of shunning disfellowshipped or disassociated relatives can be extremely painful for both members and ex-members.

B. J. Kotwall

The Watchtower Society (WTS) advises against  association with the occult, including spiritism, astrology, necromancy, mysticism and other similar beliefs and  practices condemned in the Bible. (Deuteronomy 18:9-11)

For example: The Flood forced the disobedient angels to dematerialize, and, now separated from Jehovah’s holy organization, they became an invisible demonic organization under Satan’s domination. (Ephesians 6:12) In order to control mankind, they use spiritism, necromancy, astrology and other occult devices. Although unable to take on human form again, they often possess humans, animals and inanimate things such as fetishes.  The Watchtower 1984 March 15, p. 28-29

Let’s  examine whether the WTS has  followed its own advice and avoided spiritism, necromancy, and astrology.

N e c r o m a n c y
Necromancy  refers to divination through alleged communication with the dead.

After Charles Russell the first president of WTS died in 1916 the following was said about him keeping contact with the WTS:

This verse (Revelation 8:3) shows that, though Pastor Russell has passed beyond the veil, he is still managing every feature of the harvest work…We hold that he supervises, by the Lord’s arrangement, the work yet to be done. 
The Finished Mystery 1917 pp. 144, 256

Hence our dear Pastor, now in glory, is without doubt, manifesting a keen interest in the harvest work, and is permitted by the Lord to exercise some strong influence thereupon.
Watch Tower 1917, November 1 p. 6161 [ WTS’s reprints]

The second president of the WTS Joseph Rutherford under whose aegis the above two statements were made, later contradicted them: 

No one of the temple company would be so foolish as to conclude that some brother (or brethren) at one time amongst them, and who has died and gone to heaven, is now instructing the saints on earth and directing them as to their work.
Jehovah 1934 p. 191

However, in a complete flip-flop the  WTS in 1989 reverted back to their necromantic belief:

It is fitting, then, that one of the 24 elders, representing anointed ones already in heaven, should stir John’s thinking…(Revelation 7:13, 14a) Yes, that elder could locate the answer and give it to John. This suggests that resurrected ones of the 24-elders group may be involved in the communicating of divine truths today.
Revelation – Its Grand climax At Hand! 1989 p. 125

 
S p i r i t i s m
Charles Russell believed that “A truth presented by Satan himself is just as true as a truth stated by God…Accept truth wherever you find it, no matter what it contradicts.” (Zion’s Watch Tower 1879 July pp. 8-9) In similar vein the WTS of today also uses any sources at their disposal to confirm their “truth”, notwithstanding that Russell’s statement is condemned in the Bible! (John 8:44)

Although rejecting spiritism the WTS repeatedly used the writings, of a known spiritist Johannes Greber, as a scholarly support for their beliefs. The WTS was  aware of Greber’s spiritistic connections from 1955 but continued to use his works until 1987 (particularly to support their  incorrect translation of John 1:1) while at the same time denying  that they were aware of  Greber’s spiritistic practices! (Investigator No. 24, May 1992.) After being exposed for the  use of Greber’s works the WTS  apparently stopped  using him.

 WTS has however found another spirit medium in one John S. Thompson to support their John 1:1 translation! He is listed as an authority in the WTS’s Kingdom Interlinear Translation 1985 p. 1139-1140. Research in Thompson’s book, The Monotessaron, or The Gospel History, According to the Four Evangelists (1829)  shows that his inspiration and direction came from the spirit world!

D e m o n s
The WTS has always had a morbid fascination with the subjects of demons and Jehovah’s Witnesses (JW) have developed tremendous fear of demons and Satan. Russell used to write about spirit manifestations. (eg. Zion’s Watch Tower 1907 October 1 p. 4069 WTS reprints)

Recent Watchtower publications also have warnings and instructions on how to deal with demons and demonized objects, shunning  omens and  “voices”, rejecting modern “demonized” music, resisting wicked spirits etc. (The Watchtower 1974 June 1 p.328; 1983 October 15 pp. 11-15; 1963 March 15 pp. 186-190)

Jerry Bergman in his book Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Problem of Mental Health (1992) relates  case histories showing how the WTS is seriously demon-oriented.

There have been numerous cases where a  JW was perceived by the WTS elders to be demon-possessed. The  elders then frequently take charge of the unfortunate situation and enter the house of the “possessed” JW and systematically start to destroy by burning whatever objects which they think are devil-related! This Shamanistic practice would result in the destruction of  crosses, rosaries, pictures, books, heirlooms and even items like blankets, furniture and clothing if acquired from someone or a body which is considered by the elders to be  in league with Satan!

Havor Montague in his article The Pessimistic Sect’s Influence on Mental Health: The case of Jehovah’s Witnesses states that he “has worked with many cases where the suggestion of “demon influence” has been the factor that has caused the neurotic witness to become a complete psychotic.” (p. 144)

A s t r o l o g y
WTS regularly condemns astrology  and  star worship as pagan. (Awake! 1994 July 8 pp. 3-7)

But, for 62 years (1891-1953) the WTS taught that God resided on star Alcyone, which was the eternal throne of God, and from there he governed the universe. Also the Great Pyramid, of Egypt, which was also considered by the WTS as God’s  Stone Witness, provided additional proof of the location  God’s throne on the star Alcyone. (Studies in the Scriptures Volume 3 1891 pp. 313-369;  Reconciliation 1928 p. 14) At the WTS’s burial lots in near Pittsburgh City a large pyramid  shaped monument is erected near Russell’s grave, seven feet high and nine feet across with the Knight Templar logo atop the pyramid.

Astrology and  planetary  positions were used to support the WTS’s predictions of the “long promised era” to start by 1914. (The Watchtower    1903 May 1 p. 3184  WTS reprints)

The three Magis, who came to visit the new born Jesus, are considered by the WTS as pagans because they came “from eastern parts” which was the then centre of occult worship and because they depended on astrology (a  star) to guide them! (The Watchtower 1983 October 15 pp. 11-15)

For more details regarding WTS astrology connection refer Investigator No. 41,  March 1995.

W T S  a n d  t h e  F r e e m a s o n s
Fritz Springmeier in his book The Watchtower and the Masons presents a  convincing  insight in WTS’s early connection with the occultic Freemasons.

The following are a few of the parallels between the two organizations presented by Springmeier.

• Jehovah is the most important word being the basis of their dogma, and the name of their God.

• Both use the Masonic term “Great Architect”

• Both believe God yielded power to a lesser god.             

• Both believe in a future life for all mankind, a new Golden Age.

• Both emphasize continuing revelation.

• Both see an exclusiveness to truth.

Russell used the Egyptian Trinity Winged Sun-Disk on his books and tracts. This use of the Sun-Disk is similar to 33 degree Masonic Knights Templar logo. (Springmeier p. 111-115) 

The Winged Sun Disc from Egyptian mythology 
which appeared on early JW literature

C o m m u n i c a t i o n  w i t h  A n g e l s
Joseph Rutherford the second president of the WTS believed his spiritual enlightenment came from angels because the Holy Spirit had ceased functioning since 1918. The angels channeled information into his mind from God residing on the star Alcyone. (Preservation 1932 pp.51; 201-203; Watchtower 1931 November 1 p. 327; The Watchtower 1934 April 1 p. 105)

Finally a quote from  The Occult (Colin Wilson 1979):

The artist…sees clearly that the ‘solution’ to the curious pointlessness of most human existence is not another life but  the occasional moments of ecstatic intensity and control when this universe seems infinitely interesting and the idea of eternal life, in this universe, entirely delightful.  This is an idea that can be found in Russian mysticism – in Fedorov, Dostoevsky, Rozanov – that eternal life means life on this earth, not in another world. The Jehovah’s Witnesses oddly enough hold a similar doctrine: that after the Day of Judgment, the earth will turn into Paradise. (p. 762)   (Italics in bold added) 

(From: Investigator No. 61 1998 July)

Jehovah’s Witnesses prepared TWO mansions in California
to house Bible heroes like Abraham and Moses in the resurrection.

Beth-Sarim or “House of Princes”, which they owned
from 1929-1947, is common knowledge. (Investigator 45)

Recently the J W Research Journal carried
information about another, secret,  property—called Beth
Shan meaning “House of Security”—which the Watchtower Society
(WTS) owned from 1939 to 1945.

Beth Shan was a 75 acre property—located next to
Beth Sarim—with a bigger mansion than Beth Sarim. It had several
out houses, a 4,000 gallon tank of diesel, 7 acres of cultivated
land, a well plus 10,000 gallon water-storage tank, and two secret
underground bomb shelters with storage shelves and 3-foot thick
concrete ceilings.

Access to Beth Shan was by a ½ mile dirt
track and a gate guarded by WTS personnel.

The Beth Shan deed said in part:

Until such time as the aforementioned persons
return and identify themselves to the legal representatives
of the said WATCH TOWER BIBLE & TRACT SOCIETY and the consent
of said Society take possession and control of said premises,
the President of the WATCH TOWER BIBLE & TRACT SOCIETY shall
have the right and be duty bounded to direct the management
and use of said premises hereby conveyed and to determine who
shall be in possession and have the active management thereof.

(J W Research Journal Vol. 4, No. 3, Summer 1997 p. 4)

Why did the WTS buy and develop Beth Shan? 
According to the deed Beth Shan was intended to accommodate the
resurrected Bible heroes and meanwhile be a retreat for the WTS
president.

 But there seems to be another reason.

In 1926 the WTS magazine The Golden Age predicted:

The storage shelves in the  Beth Shan bomb
shelters are explained by:

From all this it appears that the purpose for buying
and developing Beth Shan was to protect the WTS leaders from war,
famine and other trials during those “remaining months before
Armageddon”!

By 1945 events proved WTS leaders wrong regarding
world rule by the Nazis/ Fascists and Armageddon being only “months”
away.  Beth Shan was therefore no longer needed to protect
them and was sold.

Three articles in Awake! magazine (1994 July 8 ) derided astrology and star worship. What is missing in these articles is an admission of what the Watchtower Society (WTS) used to teach.

For 62 years, 1891 to 1953, the WTS taught that God resided on the star Alcyone in the Pleiades constellation and that from this star he governed the universe!

This belief was taught in 1891 in Volume 3 of Studies in the Scriptures p. 327 and was based on passages in the Bible.

The WTS also taught that the Great Pyramid of Egypt provided additional proof of God’s throne in the Pleiades! (The Golden Age 1924 September 10 pp. 793-794)

From: Studies in the Scriptures (1891) Vol. 3 p. 327 (Retyped)
The Great Pyramid 327

this distance to be from ninety to ninety six millions of miles, their latest calculation and conclusion being ninety-two millions. The Great Pyramid has also its own way of indicating that most correct standard of all weights and measures, based upon the size and weight of the earth, which it is also claimed to indicate.

Commenting upon the scientific testimony and the location of this majestic “Witness,” Rev. Joseph Seiss, D. D. suggests:

“There is a yet grander thought embodied in this wonderful structure. Of its five points there is one of special pre-eminence, in which all its sides and exterior lines terminate. It is the summit corner, which lifts its solemn index finger to the sun at midday, and by its distance from the base tells the mean distance to that sun from the earth. And if we go back to the date which the Pyramid gives itself, and look for what that finger pointed to at midnight, we find a far sublimer indication. Science has at last discovered that the sun is not a dead center, with planets wheeling about it, and itself stationary. It is now ascertained that the sun also is in motion, carrying with it its splendid retinue of comets, planets, its satellites and theirs, around some other and vastly mightier center. Astronomers are not yet fully agreed as to what or where that center is. Some, however, believe that they have found the direction of it to be the Pleiades, and particularly Alcyone, the central one of the renowned Pleiadic stars. To the distinguished German astronomer, Prof. J. H. Maedler, belongs the honor of having made this discovery. Alcyone, then, as far as science has been able to perceive, would seem to be the ‘midnight throne’ in which the whole system of gravitation has its central seat, and from which the Almighty governs his universe. And here is the wonderful corresponding fact, that at the date of the Great Pyramid’s building, at midnight of the autumnal equinox, and hence the true beginning of the year* as still preserved in the traditions of many nations, the Pleiades were distributed

The International Bible Students Souvenir Convention Report of 1914 says:

The Pleiades, the center of the universe, are located in Taurus, and as though to emphasize the foundation, the original meaning of Alcyone, one of the chief stars of the Pleiades, is “foundation”. How significant that the whole universe should throughout the ages swing about that constellation and that star which alone picture so clearly the Ransom! The bullock offered on the brazen altar in the court was indeed the foundation: it represented the sacrifice of the Lord. The bullock in the sky represented the very same thing. (pp. 252-253)

The book Reconciliation says:

But the greatness in size of other stars or planets is small when compared to the Pleiades in importance, because the Pleiades is the place of the eternal throne of God. (p. 14)

From: Reconciliation (1928) p. 14 (Retyped)

14 Reconciliation
man sees that the earth occupies a place of great importance in God’s plan and purposes and that in his due time every creature in heaven and in earth will be brought into one grand harmonious whole or unity. To this effect the inspired witness of Jehovah wrote:
“Having made known unto us the mystery of his will, according to his good pleasure which he hath purposed in himself: that in the dispensation of the fulness of times he might gather together in one all things in Christ, both which are in heaven, and which are on earth; even in him.”—Eph. 1: 9, 10.

The constellation of the seven stars forming the Pleiades, appears to be the crowning center around which the known systems of the planets revolve even as our sun’s planets obey the sun and travel in their respective orbits. It has been suggested, and with much weight, that one of the stars of that group is the dwelling-place of Jehovah and the place of the highest heavens; that it is the place to which the inspired writer referred when he said: “Hear thou from thy dwellingplace, even from heaven” (2 Chron. 6:21); and that it is the place to which Job referred when under inspiration he wrote: “Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion?”—Job 38: 31.

The constellation of the Pleiades is a small one compared with others which scientific instruments disclose to the wondering eyes of man. But the greatness in size of other stars or planets is small when compared with the Pleiades in importance, because the Pleiades is the place of the eternal throne of God. For a like reason the various groups of stars, greater in size than the planet earth, must in the eyes of

In 1953 the doctrine about Alcyone and the Pleiades was discarded:

Some attribute striking qualities to these constellations or star groups and on the basis of such they then offer private interpretations of Job 38:31, 32 that amaze their hearers… when viewed scripturally they are completely without foundation.
(The Watchtower 1953 November 15 p. 703)

The Bible verses quoted in this 1953 article which were used by “Some” to “amaze their hearers” were in fact the verses used by the WTS to prove that God resided on the Star Alcyone! (The Watchtower 1915 June 15 p. 185; The Golden Age 1928 May 16 p. 540)

A different link of WTS doctrine with astrology appeared in The Watch Tower of 1903. There astrology and planetary positions were said to support the WTS’s predictions of “the long promised era” to start by 1914. (Watchtower Reprints 1903 May 1 p. 3184)

From: Zion’s Watch Tower 1903 May 1 p. 3184 (Retyped)

AN ASTROLOGER’S OUTLOOK
We seriously question all the claims of astrology; yet the following—from whatever source the suggestions come, even though of the adversary himself—seem remarkably true to our expectations based upon the Word of the Lord. For this reason alone we present them here,—as follows:—

“Saturn is the representative of the great motive power that has dominated the mind of man up to the present time. The great organizations of Capital, attracting now so much attention, are in reality the last great struggle of this Saturn-god to save his throne. But his efforts will be futile, yet far from useless, for he is blindly doing service for a still greater God in the same way as the other planets have contributed blindly to Saturn’s glory.

“Jupiter, representing law, religion and morality, has been perforce subservient to Saturn’s greater and more potent force. It explains why the church, the law, the charitable and educational institutions have contributed to increasing the power and prestige of the worldly and material Saturn, whose selfish monopolizing material nature must be disposed of and made tributary to a higher, nobler force that will carry out the work of human evolution.

“Jupiter must also transfer his allegiance from the grasping Saturn to the newly discovered factor that stands for universal brotherhood; namely, Uranus. When Uranus and Jupiter meet in the humane sign of Aquarius in 1914, the long-promised era will have made a fair start in the work of setting man free to work out his own salvation, and will insure the ultimate realization of dreams and ideals of all poets and sages in history.

“Uranus is preparing the way for Neptune, who symbolizes love in its very highest form—the fulfilling of the law. By this, we see that Socialism, or whatever the new order may be called, will not and can not be the rule of the common or ignorant masses but the leadership of the very highest developed members of the human family.

“In 1903 Jupiter will be in the Sign of Pisces—sign of the feet, or understanding, and the synthesis of the new religion is Love;—Love that words cannot define. We are nearing a condition where “masters” will be unknown—where humanity will instinctively conform to the injunction, ‘Call no man master, neither be ye called master.’

“Note—Uranus: Great commotions are expected when it shall take its ascendancy over Saturn.”

The constellations of the Zodiac are presently considered by the WTS as being of Pagan origin. (Insight on the Scriptures Volume 2 1988 p. 1240) The same were regarded in 1914 as of Divine origin with each of the 12 Zodiacal signs having numerous correspondencies with the Bible.

To my knowledge the WTS has not directly admitted their error about God’s throne on the Star Alcyone. Their latest history book JWs Proclaimers of God’s Kingdom (1993) which they claim is “objective” and “candid” is silent on the subject.

In the last decade the Office of Public Information of Jehovah’s Witnesses has worked hard to give the Jehovah’s Witnesses a more friendlier and mainstream appearance. The recent media attention regarding the handling of sexual abuse among its members is seen by the leadership as an attack on God’s people. It seems that this causes a more isolationist policy towards the outside world. This might be the reason why the Watchtower Society is again taking a hard line on Disfellowshipped and Disassociated members.

Very interesting is how the Society changed the text on the Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah’s Witnesses, jw-media.org, in the Beliefs-Frequently Asked Questions section. Below are two screenshots taken from this website. One is taken before July 2002 the other in July 2002:

Screenshot taken before July 2002

Screenshot taken July 2002

It is very clear that “Quit mixing with them” is a much harder standpoint than “Disfellowshipping does not sever family ties”. I know that there are cases of more informed Jehovah’s Witnesses who justified their association with Disfellowshipped family members by quoting the jw-media.org website: “Disfellowshipping does not sever family ties”. But this time of Perestroika has come to an end.

To make this hardened standpoint clear for all its members, the “Faithful and Discreet Slave” has prepared an article that will be discussed in congregations all over the world. The article is published in Our Kingdom Ministry of August 2002. You can read it below:

——————————————————————————–

Display Christian Loyalty When a Relative is Disfellowshipped

1. The bond between family members can be very strong. This brings a test upon a Christian when a marriage mate, a child, a parent, or another close relative is disfellowshipped or has disassociated himself from the congregation. (Matt. 10:37) How should loyal Christians treat such a relative? Does it make a difference if the person lives in your household? First, let us review what the Bible says on this subject, the principles of which apply equally to those who are disfellowshipped and to those who disassociate themselves.

2. How to Treat Expelled Ones: God’s Word commands Christians not to keep company or fellowship with a person who has been expelled from the congregation: “Quit mixing in company with anyone called a brother that is a fornicator or a greedy person’ or an idolater or a reviler or a drunkard or an extortioner, not even eating with such a man…. Remove the wicked man from among yourselves.” (1 Cor. 5:11, 13) Jesus’ words recorded at Matthew 18:17 also bear on the matter: “Let (the expelled one] be to you just as a man of the nations and as a tax collector.” Jesus’ hearers well knew that the Jews of that day had no fraternization with Gentiles and that they shunned tax collectors as outcasts. Jesus was thus instructing his followers not to associate with expelled ones – See The Watchtower of September 15, 1981, pages 18-20.

3. This means that loyal Christians do not have spiritual fellowship with anyone who has been expelled from the congregation. But more is involved. God’s Word states that we should ‘not even eat with such a man.’ (1 Cor. 5:11) Hence, we also avoid social fellowship with an expelled person. This would rule out joining him in a picnic, party, or trip to the shops or theatre or sitting down to a meal with him either in the home or at a restaurant.

4. What about speaking with a disfellowshipped person? While the Bible does not cover every possible situation, 2 John 10 helps us to get Jehovah’s view of matters: “If anyone comes to you and does not bring this teaching, never receive him into your homes or say a greeting to him.” Commenting on this, The Watchtower of September 15,1981, page 25, says: “A simple ‘Hello’ to someone can be the first step that develops into a conversation and maybe even a friendship. Would we want to take that first step with a disfellowshiped person?”

5. Indeed, it is just as page 31 of the same issue of The Watchtower states: “The fact is that when a Christian gives himself over to sin and has to be disfellowshiped, he forfeits much: his approved standing with God;.. sweet fellowship with the brothers, including much of the association he had with Christian relatives.”

6. In the Immediate Household: Does this mean that Christians living in the same household with a disfellowshipped family member are to avoid talking to, eating with, and associating with that one as they go about their daily activities?’ The Watchtower of April 15, 1991, in the footnote on page 22, states: “‘If in a Christian’s household there is a disfellowshipped relative, that one would still be part of the normal, day-to-day household dealings and activities.” Thus, it would be left to members of the family to decide on the extent to which the disfellowshipped family member would be included when eating or engaging in other household activities. And yet, they would not want to give brothers with whom they associate the impression that everything is the same as it was before the disfellowshipping occurred.

7. However, The Watchtower of September 15, 1981, page 28, points out regarding the disfellowshipped or disassociated person: “Former spiritual ties have been completely severed. This is true even with respect to his relatives, including those within his immediate family circle. .
That will mean changes in the spiritual fellowship that may have existed in the home. For example, if the husband is disfellowshiped, his wife and children will not be comfortable with him conducting a family Bible study or leading in Bible reading and prayer. If he wants to say a prayer, such as at mealtime, he has a right to do so in his own home. But they can silently offer their own prayers to God. (Prov. 28:9; Ps. 119:145, 146) What if a disfellowshiped person in the home wants to be present when the family reads the Bible together or has a Bible study? The others might let him be present to listen if he will not try to teach them or share his religious ideas.

8. If a minor child living in the home is disfellowshipped, Christian parents are still responsible for his upbringing. The Watchtower of November 15, 1988, page 20, states: “Just as they will continue to provide him with food, clothing, and shelter, they need to instruct and discipline him in line with God’s Word. (Proverbs 6:20-22; 29:17) Loving parents may thus arrange to have a home Bible study with him, even if he is disfellowshipped. Maybe he will derive the most corrective benefit from their studying with him alone. Or they may decide that he can continue to share in the family study arrangement.”-See also The Watchtower of October f, 2001, pages 16-17.

9. Relatives Not in the Household: “The situation is different if the disfellowshipped or disassociated one is a relative living, outside the immediate family circle and home,” states The Watchtower of April 15, 1988, page 28. “It might be possible to have almost no contact at all with the relative. Even if there were some family matters requiring contact, this certainly would be kept to a minimum,” in harmony with the divine injunction to “quit mixing in company with anyone” who is guilty of sinning unrepentantly. (1 Cor. 5:11) Loyal Christians should strive to avoid needless association with such a relative, even keeping business dealings to an absolute minimum. – See also The Watchtower of September 15, 1981, pages 29-30.

10. The Watchtower addresses another situation that can arise: “What if a close relative, such as a son or a parent who does not live in the home, is disfellowshiped and subsequently wants to move back there? The family could decide what to do depending on the situation. For example, a disfellowshiped parent may be sick or no longer able to care for himself financially or physically. The Christian children have a Scriptural and moral obligation to assist. (1 Tim. 5:8)… What is done may depend on factors such as the parent’s true needs, his attitude and the regard the head of the household has for the spiritual welfare of the household.”-The Watchtower of September 15, 1981, pages 28-9.

11. As for a child, the same article continues: “Sometimes Christian parents have accepted back into the home for a time a disfellowshiped child who has become physically or emotionally ill. But in each case the parents can weigh the individual circumstances. Has a disfellowshiped son lived on his own, and is he now unable to do so? Or does he want to move back primarily because it would be an easier life? What about his morals and attitude? Will he bring ‘leaven’ into the home? – Gal. 5:9.”

12. Benefits of Being Loyal to Jehovah: Cooperating with the Scriptural arrangement to disfellowship and shun unrepentant wrongdoers is beneficial. It preserves the cleanness of the congregation and distinguishes us as upholders of the Bible’s high moral standards. (1 Pet. 1:14-16) It protects us from corrupting influences. (Gal. 5:7-9) It also affords the wrongdoer an opportunity to benefit fully from the discipline received, which can help him to produce “peaceable fruit, namely, righteousness.”-Heb. 12:11.

13. After hearing a talk at a circuit assembly, a brother and his fleshly sister realized that they needed to make adjustments in the way they treated their mother, who lived elsewhere and who had been disfellowshipped for six years. Immediately after the assembly, the man called his mother, and after assuring her of their love, he explained that they could no longer talk to her unless there were important family matters requiring contact. Shortly thereafter, his mother began attending meetings and was eventually reinstated. Also, her unbelieving husband began studying and in time was baptized.

14. Loyally upholding the disfellowshipping arrangement outlined in the Scriptures demonstrates our love for Jehovah and provides an answer to the one that is taunting Him. (Prov. 27:11) In turn, we can be assured of Jehovah’s blessing. King David wrote regarding Jehovah: “As for his statutes, I shall not turn aside from them. With someone loyal you will act in loyalty.”-2 Sam. 22:23, 26.

——————————————————————————–

The Disfellowshipping policy harms the hundreds of thousands of Disfellowshipped Jehovah’s Witnesses worldwide. It causes also unnecessary self-inflicted pain for Jehovah’s Witnesses who, against every natural feeling, shun their excommunicated family members and friends. The Jehovah’s Witnesses have still a long way to go to become mainstream believers.

At the annual meeting of the Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society of Pennsylvania (WTS) October 7th 2000, some judicial reorganizations were announced regarding the administration of this corporation. The seven directors, all members of the Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses (JWs ¹), resigned their office and were replaced by seven new directors, none of which are member of the Governing Body.

One newspaper called this the "largest reorganization ever" amongst JWs. While most JWs are completely ignorant of any change at all, in circles of ex-JWs theories of possible meanings of this change are formulated. The spokesman for the WTS, James Pellachia, simply says: "The reason for the changes was both theological and practical".

Close examination reveals, perhaps surprisingly, that no theological change whatsoever has taken place; just the filling of a few offices has changed: for the first time since the installation of the Governing Body the Board of Directors consists of members other than members of the Governing Body.

It’s not surprising to find even an official spokesman having difficulty explaining what exactly has happened. In some publications by the WTS in the past, the terms Society, Governing Body and "faithful and discreet slave" were complete synonyms, in other editions there was made a formal distinction. What does this all mean, how did this evolve, what has been changed, and when?

In 1884 Charles Taze Russell applied for incorporation for his association "Zion’s Watch Tower Society". He wanted to make the transition necessary after his death a smooth one. He stressed the limitations of the corporation in the following manner: "Zion’s Watch Tower Society is not a ‘religious society’ in the ordinary meaning of the term; for it has no creed or confession of Faith. It is purely a business association, whose mission is to serve in a business manner the wishes of its beneficiaries, who are represented in its officers"²

While Russell in 1881 read Matthew 24:45-47 as a general encouragement to be faithful and wise³, Maria F. Russell, Russell’s wife, in 1894, a period of various charges against Russell, found in it a prophetic description of the position of her husband⁴: "the faithful and discreet slave".

Although Russell reluctantly seemed to accept the interpretation⁵, he was a great lover of congregational government without a centralized body of power. He could have easily set himself up as an undisputed ruler of each congregation without their realizing what was going on, but he was able to resist this temptation because of his strong belief that the church should have no visible ruler. While Russell was convinced some prophetic symbols had foretold his own work, he never needed the interpretation of the "discreet slave" to legitimize his position as president of the WTS of which he was founder and by far most important shareholder.

His successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, was in a completely different position. In the beginning his leadership was vexed, and he was desperately holding on to his position of President of the WTS, left vacant after Russell’s death in 1916. In his will Russell had provided for a "editorial committee of five", responsible for approving articles to be published in The Watch Tower and a "Board of Directors" of the WTS, consisting of seven men.

In 1917 in The Finished Mystery (presented as posthumous by Russell), the view was expressed that Russell was still ruling the headquarters in his resurrected body. How was Russell supervising the work? Woodworth (the actual author of the book) found the answer in passages of Revelation mentioning the eight angels. Generally seven angels predominate in the book’s symbolism, which seven angels Woodworth understood to be St. Paul, St. John, Arius, Peter Waldo, Wycliffe, Luther and Russell. But twice "another angel" appears, which could reasonably be Russell’s successor. Both these times (Revelation 8:3; 14:18) Woodworth interprets the eighth angel to be the corporation.

"The corporate body – the WATCHTOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY, which Pastor Russell formed to finish his work. This verse shows that, though Pastor Russell has passed beyond the veil, he is still managing every feature of the harvest work."⁶

This was the first time the business corporation was put at the head of the work of the church and was of course a gross misunderstanding of the purpose of Russell in organizing the corporation. The author of the book, C.J. Woodworth, also saw other prophetic foreshadowings of the WTS (like Elijah’s chariot). With this the strictly legal function of the WTS was definitely abolished: the WTS became personalized and fullfilled prophetic symbolism. The WTS was viewed as successor of Russell or, more correctly, as the instrument through which the ressurrected Russell was working. And from January 6th 1917, when Rutherford was elected president of the WTS, the corporation became the lengthened shadow of Rutherford. After the annual meeting of Januari 4th 1919 Rutherford was never in any doubt regarding his position as president of the WTS. On July 7th 1917, by dismissing four corporation boardmembers, an act to which he had no legal authority as president of the WTS, he had shown he did not have scrupules concerning his strive for absolute power over the Society⁷ and he had reduced this ‘Board of Directors’ effectively to a powerless group of ‘advisors’.

In 1919 and 1920 Rutherford’s adverseries distributed amongst JWs an article titled "The Church Organized in Relation to the Society", written by Paul S. L. Johnson, a former director of the WTS and intimate of Russell. In it Johnson ably defended Russell’s ideas on the business function of the WTS. Not being able to extricate himself from this position by argument or retreat, Rutherford tried a subtle move: he gave a "broader sense" to the term "Society" and consequently equated it with the "discreet slave" (until the release of the New World Translation the expression ‘wise servant’ was used):

"While the Society is a body corporate with required officers and servants, yet these alone do not constitute the Society. In the broader sense the Society is composed of the body of Christians organized in orderly manner under the Lord’s direction for the carrying on of his work…

Often when asked by others, Who is that faithful and wise servant? – Brother Russell would reply: ‘Some say I am; while others say the Society is.’ Both statements were true, for Brother Russell was in fact the Society in a most absolute sense, in this, that he directed the policy and course of the Society without regard to any other person on earth."⁸

The slight change of meaning of the term ‘the Society’ eliminated the charge that the corporation was being used improperly. It equated the term "the Society" with the term "the church". Of course this is very confusing: on the one hand Russell is ‘the Society’, on the other hand ‘the Society is composed of the body of Christians’. Consequently Russell as well as all Christians as well as ‘the Society’ are the "discreet slave". In the following paragraph Rutherford introduced also the term ‘organization’, a term that after 1925 would have just the same mythical sound as ‘the Society’ or ‘the slave-class’. Since 1928 ‘the Society’ is spoken of as ‘the visible part of Jehovah’s universal organization’:

"Somebody in that visible organization must formulate plans of operation. It seems to have pleased the Lord to have done this at Society’s headquarters and that from there regulations are sent out to the various ecclesias.⁹"

Formally all articles to be published in The Watchtower had to be approved by the ‘editorial committee’. In 1925 Rutherford wrote an extremely controversial article entitled "The Birth of The Nation". The ‘editorial committee’ did not approve it and this "really marked the beginning of the end of the editorial committee"¹⁰. The names of this powerless Committee continued to appear in The Watchtower until 1931, when they were removed and replaced with the Scripture citation: "All thy children shall be taught of the Lord."

There remained but one obstacle to absolute power and that was the (lack of) influence of the Society on local ecclesias. Until then local elders and deacons were elected by voting; also there were no lists of membership that were registered somewhere centralized. At first Rutherford did not change this, but invited all congregations from 1919 onwards to "to ask the Society to register it as a "service organization." Then a director, or service director as he came to be known, not subject to yearly election, was appointed by the Society. As the local representative of the Society, he was to organize the work, assign territory, and encourage participation by the congregation in the field service. Thus, alongside the ‘elective elders and deacons’, another type of organizational arrangement began to function, one that recognized appointive authority outside the local congregation and that gave greater emphasis to the preaching of the good news of God’s Kingdom."¹¹ With each increase in work the power of the service director increased correspondingly. Rutherford discouraged public discourses – an elder’s work – and replaced them with weekly studies of The Watchtower – a congregational participation study. Finally, in 1932, the system of ‘elective elders’ was completely replaced by a ‘service-committee’, officers appointed by the WTS and were Rutherford’s powers secured at all levels. Although Rutherford was always very careful to avoid saying that he was the head of the church, Consolation said (4 september 1940, p. 25):

"The Theocracy is at present administered by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, of which Judge Rutherford is the president and general manager."

These were the powers Nathan Homer Knorr inherited in 1942 after Rutherford’s death. One letter in The Watchtower said on him:

"You are the visible director of the earthly interest of The Theocracy … You are the chief servant of the Lord here on earth.¹²"

The motion of the Pennsylvania corporation also expressed the actual, if not claimed, power of the President when it said:

"Instructions come to the Lord’s people on earth from the office of the President of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society.¹³"

On the 1944 annual meeting Knorr for the first time altered something in the administration of the corporation of the WTS: there was to be an alteration in the method of voting to eliminate the $ 10 contribution. It was to be replaced with a system of membership of about 500 JWs, each of which were given one vote each. The $10 vote, said Knorr, was not theocratic. Further changes "broadened the powers of the Society" (corporation)¹⁴. The gist of these broadened powers was to make legal the powers the corporation had already been exercising since Rutherford took over; it included such powers as the sending forth of "missionaries, teachers, and instructors in the Bible".

In 1944 the term ‘Governing Body’ was introduced in The Watchtower¹⁵. Milton, G. Henschel, a director of the Pennsylvania corporation, explains who governs JWs as follows: "The Governing Body consists of seven ministers serving as a board of directors."¹⁶ From the fourties onwards the term Governing Body was used frequently, but as we have seen this was synonymous to the Board of Directors of the WTS. This can also be inferred from the fact that Hayden C. Covington in September 1945 "declined to serve further as vice president of the WTS, explaining that he wished to comply with what was then understood to be Jehovah’s will for all members of the directorate and officers-that they be spirit-anointed Christians, whereas he professed to be one of the "other sheep.""¹⁷. As we have already seen the Board of Directors was practically stripped of all power during the reign of Rutherford and during Knorr’s first years as President this was not changed.

The Watchtower of December 15th 1971, pp. 755-62, for the first time explained that the Governing Body was not identical with the Board of Directors. The Governing Body could consist of more members than the seven ‘directors’. At the same time four new members of the Governing Body were appointed. Also on local level some changes were made, like appointing more elders than just one service-director. With this change the chain was unbroken again on local level; the situation was exactly the same as before abolishing the ‘elective elders and deacons’ with one difference: now the WTS appointed these officers, so there could be truly said: "elders … are the Governing Body’s representatives"¹⁸.

In April 1975 Knorr appointed a Comittee of Five to study the relation between the corporations and the Governing Body. Until then the power of the Governing Body was very limited; in fact it only had an advisory function (only the President of the WTS had decisive powers). But then, in a meeting of the Governing Body on April 30th 1975, Knorr made a motion that thenceforth all matters be decided by a two-thirds vote of the active membership (which by then numbered 17). During the same session the Committee discussed a preliminary report and stated: "The committee feels that today the Governing Body should be directing the corporations and not the other way around"¹⁹.

On August 15th 1975 the Committee of Five presented its definitive report and it was discussed by the Governing Body in the period between September 10th and December 4th 1975. The report advised an organizational structure that finally was accepted and implemented, and published in The Watchtower of January 1st 1977, pp. 15-17²⁰.

Thís was the largest reorganization ever amongst JWs. It stripped the President of the WTS from all real power, although still only members of the Governing Body could become members of the Board of Directors. From 1976 all power is in the hands of the Governing Body. A few years later the explanation came (apparently with power post facto):

"To keep matters in proper perspective, however, it was pointed out that when The Watchtower referred to "The Society," this meant, not a mere legal instrumentality, but the body of anointed Christians that had formed that legal entity and used it. Thus the expression stood for the faithful and discreet slave with its Governing Body."²¹

What took place during the annual meeting on October 7th 2000, was therefore nothing more than some alterations in filling a few offices of the Board of Directors of the WTS. The theological basis was already there from the’70s.

Of course the question remains why this change takes place only now, 20 years after providing the doctrinal justification. Possibly there is a connection with the age of the members of the Governing Body. Although this year, 2000, some younger members were added, the average age remains high. Since there already have been appointed not-‘anointed’ ones in sub-comittees of the Governing Body and there is no increase in ‘anointed’ Witnesses, let alone in ‘anointed’ ones who meet the requirements for membership of the Governing Body, it seems only a matter of time until not-‘anointed’ ones will be admitted to the Governing Body.

Raymond V. Franz, former member of the Governing Body and only insider ever to publish on the inner workings, suggests that the seperation of theological and judicial responsibility could be inspired by lawsuits the WTS could face over its ban on bloodtransfusion and its practice of expelling members. In the recent past Watchtower-publication already encouraged ‘proper’ use of the term Society with a hint of legal implications (say: ‘the Bible taught me…’ instead of ‘the Society tells…’ as in The Watchtower, March 15 1998, p. 19).

A more speculative, but not less interesting, option an expert on JWs presented to mecould be that this is just the surface of a deep-rooted upheaval: a power-struggle in the ranks of the WTS. Is it possible that younger, intelligent and capable administrators want to take over command? Recent figures indicate numerical decline in developed countries (Northern America, Western Europe) and also a decline in zeal (measured by reported field-service). Do the younger leaders no longer accept the dictatorial gerontocracy and will they fall back on pre-1975 structure to set things straight? Will prophetic symbols like Elijah smiting the waters with his mantle and handing it over to Elisah be applied in a new way to find a doctrinal justification for the change of power? Since Don Adams, the new President of the WTS, said he considers it a privilege to cooperate with the Governing Body, this is not at all likely, but the tempestuous history of JWs has shown more than once before that even the most unlikely option has to be taken into serious consideration.

¹ Although historically incorrect, the term JWs for Jehovah’s Witnesses is used throughout this article.

² w 10/15/1894, pp. 330, 331. reprints p. 1320

³ w 10/1881 p. 5, reprints p. 291

⁴ w 7/15/1906 pp. 215, 216, reprints p. 3811

⁵ w 12/1/1916 pp. 356, 357, reprints p. 5998

⁶ The Finished Mystery, pp. 12, 144, 227, 256

⁷ Rutherford justified this dismissal by arguing that the directors were never legally elected. Johnson refuted this, supported by Rutherford’s lawyer and the attorney of the Board. However, Rutherford did not yield and pressed through using manipulation, misuse of power and even physical violence.

⁸ w 3/1/23, p. 68

⁹ w 11/1/28, p. 332

¹⁰ w 6/15/38, p. 185

¹¹ Proclaimers, p. 212

¹² w 2/15/42, p. 63

¹³ Yearbook, 1943, pp. 226, 227

¹⁴ w 11/1/44, p. 334

¹⁵ w 12/15/71, p. 755-62

¹⁶ A Guide To the Religions of America, edited by Leo Rosten (Simon and Schuster). (Article by Henschel). See also Qualified to Be Ministers (1955), p. 381: "During the days since the Lord came to his temple his visible governing body has been closely identified with the board of directors of this corporation."

¹⁷ Proclaimers, p. 91

¹⁸ w 7/1/76, p. 401

¹⁹ Crisis of Conscience by R.V. Franz, 1983, 1992, p. 71

²⁰ The arrangement went into effect on January 1, 1976

²¹ Proclaimers, p. 219

© Maurice van Elburg. May not be reprinted without permission.

B J Kotwall

Who really is the faithful and discreet slave whom his master appointed over his domestics, to give them their food at the proper time? Happy is that slave if his master on arriving finds him doing so. Truly I say to YOU, He will appoint him over all his belongings. Matthew 24:45-47 (New World Translation of the Holy Scripture 1984 (NWT))

The above verses in Jesus’ parable are used more frequently then any other verses by The Watchtower Society (WTS) to keep a stranglehold on Jehovah’s Witnesses.

It is our intention to show, in this treatise that the WTS has used these parabolic verses to take on an incorrect and completely unjustified prophetic sense. (The Watchtower (WT) 1981 March 1, p. 24; WT 1960 July 15 p. 462; God’s Kingdom of a Thousand Years Has Approached. 1973. p. 350)

The “Slave” was the whole body of Christ
The WTS up to 1895 taught that the Slave was the whole body of Christ.
(WT 1881 November p. 291; 1890 January p. 1171; 1895 April 1 p.
1797).

Russell was the “Slave”!
But soon in 1896 the thinking was changed and an individual, Charles
T.Russell, was chosen as the Slave. Russell also happened to be
the head of the WTS.

Bible commentators, outside the WTS understand the
passage as a parable, which Jesus gave to encourage each of his
individual followers to be a faithful and wise servant rather then
an evil slave. Jesus was not giving here a prophecy as WTS contends.
In support Jesus continued by saying in the next verses:

But if ever that evil slave should say in his heart, ‘My master
is delaying,’ and should start to beat his fellow slaves and should
eat and drink with the confirmed drunkards, the master of that
slave will come on a day that he does not expect and in an hour
that he does not know, and will punish him with the greatest severity
and will assign him his part with the hypocrites. There is where
[his] weeping and the gnashing of [his] teeth will be. Matthew
24:48-51 (NWT)

Russell however converted this admonition into a
personal appointment for himself as the “Faithful and Wise Servant”
– God’s mouthpiece to mankind! The WTS maintained from 1896 to 1927
that Russell was that Servant (Slave). (WT 1896 March 1, p. 1946;
Studies in Scriptures Vol I 1924-1927 editions p. 7; Vol.4 p. 613;
Vol. 7 pp. 3, 5, 422, 418; WT 1917 March 1, p. 6049; Harp of God
1921 p. 229).

Russell was not the Slave”!
Rutherford, the second president of the WTS changed this belief
in 1927 and asserted that the Slave designation applied not to an
individual – Russell – but to the WTS organization. It was also
falsely publicized that Russell had never claimed to be that Slave.
(WT February 15, 1927 p. 56; God’s Kingdom of a Thousand Years Has
Approached 1973 p. 346). However, since critics exposed this lie
of the WTS they made a half-baked and false admission in their latest
biography Jehovah’s Witnesses Proclaimers of God’s Kingdom
(1993) that “…the idea that Russell himself was the faithful and
wise servant…came to be generally held by the Bible Students for
some thirty years.” (p. 143) The Proclaimers book on the same page
also places the blame on Russell’s wife Maria for the teaching that
Russell was that Servant. The writers of the Proclaimers book pretend
to be unaware that that the WT of 1917 March 1, p. 6049 states very
clearly that, “Watch Tower unhesitatingly proclaims brother Russell
as ‘that faithful and wise servant’” (p. 143)

The “Slave” is over 1800 years old!
The WTS also teaches, without any support, that the “Slave” represents
the Christian congregation from its beginning in A.D. 33 up to now:

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that this parable pertains to the
one true congregation of Jesus Christ’s anointed followers. Beginning
with Pentecost, 33 C.E., and continuing through the 19 centuries
since then, this slavelike congregation has been feeding its members
spiritually, doing so faithfully and discreetly. (WT 1981 March
1, p. 24)

And further:

From Pentecost, A.D. 33, up to this very present hour this (”feeding”)
has been lovingly and carefully performed. Yes, and these “domestics”
have been fed on progressive spiritual food that keeps them abreast
of the “bright light that is getting lighter and lighter until
the day is firmly established.” WT 1960 July 15 p. 435.

So the well-nourished Christian congregation (Slave)
as WTS claims was more than 1800 years old by the time Russell appeared
on the scene in mid 1870s. This claim is downright nonsense without
any proof or justification. Because, if it was the case that there
was a Slave operating for over 1800 years, there was no need for
Russell to have “revived the great truths taught by Jesus and the
Apostles” (Jehovah’s Witnesses in the Divine Purpose 1959 p. 17).
WTS cannot answer where this 1800-year-old congregation was located!
Russell certainly did not seek out this non-existent congregation
and neither did this mythical congregation seek Russell out! In
fact Russell never turned to any earthly organization. He acted
independently on his own. Russell and his associates were actually
anti-earthly organization. Russell affirmed that:

We belong to NO earthly organization…All the saints
now living, or that have lived during this age, belonged to OUR
CHURCH ORGANIZATION: such are all ONE Church, and there is NO
OTHER recognized by the Lord. Hence any earthly organization
which in the least interferes with this union of saints is
contrary to the teachings of Scripture and opposed to the Lord’s
will. (WT February 1884)

“Slave” was spiritually unclean!
The next consideration is to be given to the WTS’s claim that Christ
returned invisibly in 1914 and in 1919 he made a temple judgment
which resulted in WTS being selected over all other churches! Jesus
accomplished this despite the fact that he knew that WTS was spiritually
unclean at that very time!

The Scriptures describe them as having unclean garments because
of their long association with Christian apostasy…They had many
practices, characteristics and beliefs similar to the weedlike
sects of Christendom. (WT 1960 July 15 pp.435-6)

“Slave” served contaminated food!
An another criterion for selection of the WTS was “the serving of
the food, the right sort of food was the issue at the proper time.
It was according to this that a decision must be rendered by the
returned master.” (God’s Kingdom of a Thousand Years Has Approached
1973 p. 350).

We observe that the “right sort of food” served by
the WTS at that time consisting among other things was that:

• The teaching of the time of the end began in 1799

• Christ returned invisibly in 1874.

• The world would be destroyed in 1914

• The Pyramids were God’s Witness – a Bible in Stone

• Rutherford had started to preach in his talks that the world
  was to end in 1925. He later, in 1925, published a book on the
  same topic.

• The Finished Mystery was published in 1917. The book
  contained the most extensively nonsensical material, which WTS
  has ever put together in one book.

We are asked to believe that despite all these aberrations
of the WTS at that time, Jesus chose to select the WTS above all
other Christian sects! And of course the appointment was confirmed
by Jesus and conveyed to the WTS – all invisibly too! As regard
the proof required that the WTS was consistently serving food that
was clearly superior to any being offered by other Christian sects,
we have to simply refer to the WTS’s own admissions as quoted above
in WT 1960 July 15 pp. 435-436; and in God’s Kingdom…
book p. 350!

Over 99% of “Slaves” do not provide any input!

Another important point is that the “faithful and discreet slave”
is supposed to comprise of the entire remnant of the 144,000, which
presently number 8755 by WTS’s last count. These “anointed” remnants
are scattered throughout the world. This composite slave of 8,755
anointed persons are supposed to share the parabolic dispensing
of food and as a collective body they are ALL placed over the master’s
belongings. (United in Worship of the Only True God 1983 p.
120; God’s Kingdom of a Thousand Years Has Approached 1973 p. 343;
WT 1981 March 1 p. 24). It is a complete charade to say that these
8755 anointed remnants, who are distributed around the world, do
any type of developing and sharing of the spiritual food presented
to JWs by the WTS. Ray Franz ex-Governing Body member of the WTS
in his book In Search of Christian Freedom (1991) referring
to this topic says:

It is perhaps the most obvious fiction found in the whole range
of published explanations of Scripture produced by the organization.
The fact is that not even 1 percent of the number of “anointed”
ones have the slightest part in determining what Jehovah’s Witnesses
receive in the way of Biblical material or in the forming of policy
or the directing of the activities of that people.…By far the
majority of the articles published in The Watchtower magazine
were written by persons not of the “anointed class” (p. 154)

Chronologically the “slave” does not exist!
Another point is the fact that the 1914 date for the arrival of
Jesus is based on a WTS chronology which is indisputably false.
Their incorrect linchpin 607 BC date for the fall of Jerusalem has
a very heavy burden of evidence against it and has simply no support
outside the WTS. The fact that the concept of identifying the Slave
rests on false chronological calculations obviously demonstrates
that the Slave has no justifiable “existence”. Carl Olof Jonsson
in his book The Gentile Times Reconsidered (1998), with the
aid of irrefutable and scholarly arguments, demonstrates the WTS’s
false stance on the 1914 date and the subsequent myth of the Slave.

In conclusion we would like to state that the story
of the “faithful and discreet Slave” is a man-made counterfeit fable.
This “Slave” deserves full contempt and rejection by all thinking
persons.

Summary
We have considered not one but six reasons why “the faithful and
discreet slave” is a figment of the imagination of the WTS. A summation
of these reasons is given below:

• The WTS has not even been sure about what they wish to put
  across about the entity of the Slave. Up to 1896 the WTS speculated
  that the Slave was an organization (the whole body of Christ).
  After 1896 up to 1927 (11 years after Russell’s death) the WTS
  held that the Slave was an individual – Russell. After 1927
  the WTS again conjectured that the Slave was an organization.

• The Slave was considered to have had an existence for some
  1800 years from Pentecost. No justification or proof was provided
  – just asserted. This was again rank speculation.

• Despite the fact that the Slave was spiritually unclean and
  was serving tainted “food”, we are expected to believe that,
  Jesus selected the WTS to be the Slave from amongst all the
  other Christian sects. Christ did this despite the fact that
  the WTS was still spiritually unclean and serving tainted “food”
  at the very same time the appointment of WTS was being made
  by Jesus! All this was admitted by the WTS in their own publications
  as shown above.

• The Slave which is supposed to comprise of the entire remnant
  of the 144,000, presently totalling some 8755 “anointed” persons,
  are all supposed to provide input in dispensing of “food” to
  JWs around the world. However, in reality, these persons are
  just figureheads and are never consulted in any decisions or
  announcements the WTS makes. The whole concept of the functionality
  of the remnant is a ridiculous pretence and patently false.

• A defunct and entirely false chronology established 1914 as
  the date of “return” of Jesus. Since this chronology is proven
  false it can be asserted that Jesus did not return in 1914 and
  consequently could not have selected the WTS as the Slave in
  1919!

©
Copyright B J Kotwall